ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE

ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE

Indian literature includes everything which is included in the word ‘literature’ in its broadest, sense: religious and mundane, epic and lyric, dramatic and didactic poetry, narrative and scientific prose, as well as oral poetry and song. Thus, it defies the common perception that it was confined tosacred texts like the Vedas and the Upanishads.

Vedas

The word “Veda” signifies knowledge. The Vedas provide guidance for living and were originally transmitted orally.

• Style of Writing: Written in highly stylized poetic language, filled with symbols and myths.
• Time Period: Compiled between 1500–1000 BC, the Vedas were handed down orally for generations.
• Types of Vedas: There are four major Vedas:
  • Rig Veda: The oldest Veda, consisting of 1,028 hymns.
    • Significance: One of the earliest compositions in any Indo-European language.
    • Time Period: Compiled around 1500–1200 BC.
    • Focus: Concentrates on worldly prosperity and natural beauty.
    • Theme: Discusses creation, life, death, and sacrifices for pleasure through soma (ritual drink).
    • Deities: Chiefly dedicated to Indra and other gods.
  • Yajur Veda: The name “Yajus” means sacrifice.
    • Focus: Focuses on rites and mantras for sacrificial rituals.
    • Significance: A ritualistic guide for priests, prescribing various types of sacrifices.
  • Sama Veda: Known as the “book of chants”.
    • Focus: Contains hymns for melody and songs.
    • Significance: Highlights the development of Indian music during the Vedic period.
  • Atharva Veda: Focuses on peace, prosperity, and the daily life of humans.
    • Theme: Includes mantras for the treatment of ailments and is said to prescribe treatment for 99 diseases.

Brahmanas

The Brahmanas are texts attached to each Veda, serving as commentaries on rituals and meanings.

• • Division: The ritualistic component and the interpretative component, discussing the meaning of Vedic rituals.
  • Time Period: Time period: It is usually pegged to be composed and compiled between 900-700 BC.

• Significance: 

• • Explanation: They are usually a mixture of legends, facts, philosophy and detailed explanations of Vedic rituals.
  • Instructions: They contain instructions on how to properly conduct rituals and enunciate the science of sacrifice.
  • Explain significance: They explain the symbolic significance of the sacred words used in the rituals.

Aranyakas

Aranyakas are texts attached to the Vedas and were taught by Munis (hermits), who preferred to live in the forests.

• Features:
  • Transitional Phase: They represent the transitional phase between the ritualistic symbolism of the Brahmanas and the philosophical doctrines of the Upanishads.
  • Karma-kanda: These texts deal with ritualistic actions and sacrifices.
• Significance:
  • Information: They provide ritualistic details on birth and death cycles, reflecting the complexity of the soul.
  • Philosophy: They explain the philosophical meanings behind rituals and sacrifices mentioned in the Vedas.

Upanishads

The word “Upanishad” literally means the knowledge imparted to a student by a teacher, leading to the destruction of ignorance. It focuses on self-realization and Brahman (the ultimate reality).

• Features:
  • Tradition: Part of the guru-shishya parampara (teacher-student tradition).
  • Language: Written in Sanskrit, they provide a mystical and monastic interpretation of the Vedas.
  • Last Part of Vedas: They are generally the concluding part of the Vedas, hence known as Vedanta (end of the Vedas).
  • Theme: They explore philosophical problems, including the origin of the universe, life and death, the soul, and the spiritual quests of mankind.
  • Style: Written in both prose and poetry.
  • Jnana-kanda: They focus on knowledge (spirituality) as opposed to the ritualistic aspects.
• Significance:
  • Route to Moksha: The Upanishads are considered the source of truth about human life, showing the path to salvation (moksha).
  • Founding Rituals: The teachings of the Upanishads form the basis for the founding rituals of Hinduism.

The Epics

Ramayana (Adikavya) by Valmiki

• Time Period: Most historians suggest that it was first compiled around 1500 BC.
• Theme: It narrates the war between Lord Rama and Ravana, focusing on the kidnapping of Sita, Rama’s wife.
• Composition: The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses, divided into seven books (called Kandas), and is known as Kavya (poetry).
• Significance:
  • Achieving Purushartha: The Ramayana provides guidance on how to achieve the four-fold objectives of human life (Purushartha):
    • Dharma (righteousness).
    • Artha (worldly achievements).
    • Kama (desires).
    • Moksha (liberation from desires).
  • Achieving Divinity: Highlights how individuals can achieve divinity through righteousness, as Rama embodies divine qualities.
  • Message: The victory of good over evil is a central theme.

Mahabharata by Vyasa

• Theme: Focuses on the conflict between the Kauravas and Pandavas over the throne of Hastinapur.
• Composition: The Mahabharata contains 100,000 verses divided into 10 books (called Parvas), with many interpolations. It is considered Itihasa Purana (mythical history).
• Significance:
• Debate on Dharma:
  • The Bhagavad Gita, a part of the Mahabharata, explores the debate on Dharma, especially the tension between action vs. non-action and violence vs. non-violence.
  • Lord Krishna distinguishes between various kinds of Dharma and promotes Nishkama Karma (duty without attachment).
• Collective Significance: Both the Ramayana and Mahabharata reflect the ethos of the people and offer a universal human context.

Puranas

• Meaning: The word Purana means “that which renews the old.”
• Features:
  • Purpose: Written to illustrate and expound on the truths found in the Vedas.
  • Time Period:
    • Though the form dates back to 4th–5th century BC, the 18 Mahapuranas were formally compiled by the 3rd century AD.
  • Themes: The Mahapuranas deal with:
    • Sarga (original creation of the universe).
    • Pratisarga (cycles of destruction and re-creation).
    • Manvantara (cosmic cycles of time).
    • Genealogies of solar and lunar dynasties.
• Significance:
  • Origin of Stories: The Puranas are the source of many stories, anecdotes, and mythological narratives that form the social, religious, and cultural history of India.
  • Meeting Point of Beliefs: The Puranas serve as a convergence point for diverse regional beliefs and align with the spiritual and social needs of Indian society.