FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1799)

FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1799)

The French Revolution was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in 1799. Many of its ideas are considered fundamental principles of liberal democracy, while phrases like Liberté, égalité, fraternité reappeared in other revolts.

Reasons/Causes of the French Revolution

1. Political Causes:

• Unpragmatic Policies of the Rulers:
  • Louis XIV: Engaged in continuous wars, which drained the French economy.
  • Louis XVI: Despite France facing bankruptcy, he sent troops to help Americans in their revolution, further worsening the financial situation. The conflict between the monarchy and nobility over reforms paralyzed the government.
• Conflict between Monarchy and Nobility: The nobility resisted reforms, particularly related to the tax system, which created a deadlock and contributed to financial instability.

2. Economic Causes:

• Economy in Crisis:
  • Pain to Primary Sector: Feudal lords exploited serfs and tillers, leading to a suffering agricultural sector. The feudal system weighed down the primary sector.
  • Weakening of Secondary Sector: France’s lack of natural resources and poorly functioning primary sector weakened its manufacturing and industrial activities.
  • Unsupported Tertiary Sector: The tertiary sector also faced hardships, contributing to a broader economic downturn.
  • Extravagant Life of Royals: Both Louis XV and Louis XVI lived lavishly, compounding the financial crisis.
  • Fiscal Issues: Continuous wars from 1714 to 1763 and support for the American Revolution (1776-1783) drained the French treasury.
  • Poor Agricultural Output: Inefficiency in agriculture led to high food prices, worsening the economic situation, especially during the famines of the 1780s.
  • Irrational Taxation System: The wealthy and nobility (First and Second Estates) were exempt from paying taxes, leaving the burden on the poor peasants and workers (Third Estate).

3. Social Causes:

• Rise of the Bourgeoisie: The emerging bourgeois class was frustrated by the feudal system and the lack of personal liberty, which fueled their desire for change.
• Intellectual Activity: Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu challenged the traditional power structures and promoted the ideas of democracy, equality, and separation of powers.

Intellectual Influence:

• John Locke: In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke rejected the doctrine of the divine right of kings, emphasizing the importance of government being based on consent from the governed.
• Rousseau: In The Social Contract, Rousseau argued for a form of government where sovereignty lies with the people, which was instrumental in shaping the democratic ideals of the French Revolution.
• Montesquieu: In The Spirit of Laws, Montesquieu proposed the separation of powers among the legislature, executive, and judiciary, which influenced both the American and French revolutions.
• American Influence: The American Constitution, with its emphasis on individual rights and liberties, provided a model for French revolutionaries seeking political reform.

Phases of the French Revolution:

• Demand of Estates General (1789): When King Louis XVI imposed new taxes, the people demanded the formation of the Estates General, a general assembly representing the three estates (clergy, nobility, and commoners). The king sought to manipulate the votes, but the common people began pushing for reforms.
• National Representatives: The 3rd Estate (commoners) declared themselves as the National Assembly, aspiring to draft a new constitution. This marked the beginning of serious dissent against the monarchy.
• Storming of the Bastille (1789): The storming of Bastille, a political prison, by the common people is a defining moment of the revolution. It symbolized the fall of tyranny and the beginning of a more democratic France.
• 4th August Declaration: Many members of the nobility renounced their privileges, signaling a major social and political shift.
• Constitution of 1791: The new constitution established a Constitutional Monarchy with:
  • Civil and Human Rights Declaration
  • Reforms in Clergy Law
  • New Economy Patterns: Introducing new currency, a mixed economy, and nationalization of lands.
• National Convention: The monarchy’s fall led to a new form of governance, though there was confusion, especially when King Louis XVI tried to flee the country. This resulted in the Pilnitz Declaration (1791), where European monarchs like Prussia and the Holy Roman Empire urged unity to restore the monarchy in France, leading to escalations that culminated in the war of 1792.

Constitution of 1792

The National Convention adopted the Constitution of 1792, abolishing the monarchy and transforming France into a republic. The right to vote was extended to all men over 21, regardless of wealth.

Jacobins and Girondists

• The new constitution led to divisions between the Jacobins (radicals, representing the lower class) and the Girondists (liberals, representing the middle and upper class). The National Assembly was divided, and as each faction pursued its agenda, anarchy prevailed.

Rise of Robespierre

• After the execution of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette in 1793, Maximilien Robespierre rose to power. As the head of the Committee for Public Safety, he became the face of the Reign of Terror (1793-94).
• His primary political goal was to preserve the achievements of the revolution by eliminating those he saw as enemies of the new republic, which included monarchy supporters and others who opposed the revolution’s ideals.

The Reign of Terror (1793-94)

• Terror as Government Policy: Under Robespierre’s leadership, the Reign of Terror aimed to use violence to achieve political goals. It was a period marked by extensive executions and the use of terror as a tool of governance.
• Irrational Thoughts of Robespierre: He believed that many French citizens lacked the qualities necessary for democracy and thus needed to be eliminated. This idea led to the mass execution of perceived enemies.
• Dictatorship as the Outcome: The Committee of Public Safety gained sweeping powers over military, judicial, and legislative matters. Robespierre established a virtual dictatorship, using extreme measures to maintain control.
• Intensity of the Phase: Tens of thousands of people were executed, including 16,594 by guillotine. An additional 25,000 were executed summarily across France.
• Execution of Robespierre: Robespierre’s reign ended when he began executing members of the National Convention itself. In 1794, he was arrested and executed, effectively ending the Reign of Terror.

Conclusion

The Reign of Terror was a significant and brutal phase of the French Revolution, where the ideals of liberty were overshadowed by violence. Originally intended to eliminate threats to the revolution, it eventually led to widespread executions and excesses that deviated from the initial revolutionary goals. Robespierre’s fall marked the end of this period of extreme violence.

Napoleon (1799-1815)

Rise of Napoleon – Reasons

• Political Opportunity: The French Revolution abolished the social class system, promoting talent over birthright, which allowed individuals like Napoleon to rise. The revolution provided a platform for talented men to advance based on merit.
• Power Vacuum: The weak revolutionary government, the Directory, failed to meet the demands of the people, creating a power vacuum that Napoleon used to ascend to power. The instability gave Napoleon the opportunity to organize a coup.
• Innovation: Scientific and military advancements played a significant role in Napoleon’s rise. He made use of better maps, roads, weapons, and artillery, which enabled him to lead successful military campaigns.
• Influential Connections: Napoleon’s personal relationships with revolutionary leaders and politicians, like Robespierre, helped him secure a closer connection to the heart of the revolution and its influential figures.
• Personality: Napoleon’s early sense of responsibility and desire to overcome his modest background contributed to his ambition. His time at the military academy prepared him for future campaigns, such as his attempts to liberate Corsica.
• Achievements: Napoleon was appointed Commander-in-Chief, and his successful Italian expedition against Austria established him as a hero in France. Despite a defeat in Egypt, he gained popularity and organized the Saint-Cloud Convention, making him the First Consul of France for 10 years from 1799.

Reforms by Napoleon (Positive and Negative Aspects to be Discussed):

• Peace with Europe: Napoleon initiated diplomatic negotiations with Austria and England, leading to the Treaty of Amiens between England and France, which brought a period of peace.
• Economic Reforms:
  • Primary Sector: Napoleon promoted irrigation, increased fertility, and expanded agricultural land under production.
  • Secondary Sector: Despite these reforms, the Industrial Revolution was neglected, leaving the French economy backward.
  • Bank of France: Napoleon established the Bank of France to stabilize the currency system and secure his wealth.
• Political Reforms:
  • Plebiscite: Napoleon conducted a plebiscite where the majority voted in favor of making him the ruler of France, moving back towards monarchy and autocracy.
  • Provision of Four Houses: Napoleon introduced a new electoral system, where those over 30 years old could vote for members of the electoral college.
  • Voting System: Although the voting system was introduced, Napoleon nominated the members of all houses, reinforcing his control over the political system.
• Bureaucracy: Appointments, transfers, and promotions were controlled by Napoleon, giving him autocratic powers despite the appearance of democracy.
• Reforms by Napoleon:
• Napoleonic Code: Codified laws that included the Civil Code, Penal Code, and Commercial Code, focusing on secularism.
• Education Reforms: Established a modern education system, including Primary, Secondary, and Higher Education. The education was secular, and Napoleonism was subtly taught in schools to ensure loyalty to the state and religion. Normal schools for teacher training were also founded.
• Cultural and Religious Reforms:
  • Emphasis on constructing palaces.
  • Established the Legion of Honour award to honor his supporters, which is still a prestigious award in France.
  • Concordat Agreement (1801): This agreement aimed to resolve the tension between the Pope and the state by making Catholicism the official religion of the majority in France, while still asserting state control. However, this led to Napoleon being criticized for promoting nationalism at the cost of religion, earning him the label “Destroyer of the French Revolution” by his critics.

Reasons for Decline of Napoleon or Blunders:

• War with Europe: To distract from the failure of his reforms, Napoleon involved France in multiple wars. Instead of focusing on internal growth, he expended France’s resources in warfare, which ultimately hurt the nation. Major battles include:
  • Battle of Austerlitz: Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia.
  • Battle of Jena: Napoleon defeated Prussia and destroyed the Holy Roman Empire.
  • Battle of Wagram: Napoleon defeated combined Austrian and Prussian forces in 1809.
• Continental Policy: After being defeated at Trafalgar Square, Napoleon adopted the Continental Policy (CP) to damage British trade by banning trade between Europe and Britain. He enforced this policy through allies, including declarations made in Berlin, Milan, and Fontainebleau, but it disrupted Europe’s economy instead.
• Trouble with Spain: One of Napoleon’s key blunders was his intervention in Spain. He attempted to reform the Spanish political system by installing his brother Joseph I as king. However, this move led to a rebellion by the Spanish people, known as the “Spanish Ulcer,” which drained Napoleon’s resources over a prolonged conflict.
• War with Russia: Napoleon’s attempt to subdue Russia after earlier friendly relations turned into a disaster. Following the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia rejected Napoleon’s Continental Policy. In response, Napoleon invaded Russia but faced brutal resistance. The harsh winter and logistical challenges decimated his army, and the Russians pushed him back towards Europe.
• Battle of Leipzig (1813) and Battle of Waterloo (1815): After a series of defeats, Napoleon faced an alliance of European nations. At Leipzig, he was decisively beaten, and at Waterloo, Napoleon faced his final defeat at the hands of the combined European forces. This marked the end of his rule and his eventual exile to Saint Helena.

Evaluation of French Revolution

• Democratic Ideals: Establishment of elected heads of state, houses, and legislatures.
• Spread of Liberalism: The overthrow of hereditary aristocracy, promoting “liberty, equality, fraternity.”
• Secularism: Separation of church and state, with a significant event being the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790.
• Universal Adult Franchise (UAF): France became the first state to grant universal male suffrage.
• Victory of Humanism: Abolition of slavery in France and its dominions.
• Beginning of Modern Education: Formation of the National Education Council.
• Rise of Modern Nationalism: The Revolution fostered a sense of nationalism, which later influenced other nations.
• Base for early Communism: Though the Revolution didn’t establish socialism or communism, it laid ideological foundations.
• Age of Revolution: Impact of the French Revolution extended into the early 19th century, influencing the Napoleonic Wars and social upheavals in Europe.

Evaluation of Napoleon

• Export of French Ideals: Napoleon played a key role in spreading French ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity across Europe.
• ‘Dalhousie’ of Europe: Promoted Italian and German unification by eliminating small states and the Holy Roman Empire.
• Napoleon’s Contributions: Significant in law and education.
• Colonial Rivalry: His rule intensified colonial competition in regions like Egypt and India.
• Nationalism: Napoleon helped promote nationalism and post-revolutionary French national identity.