Fascism is a form of far-right, authoritarianism ultranationalism characterised by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and of the economy, which came to prominence in early 20-th century Europe.
Reasons for the Rise of Fascism
- Disappointment at Versailles: Italy, despite its efforts in World War I, did not gain control over Yugoslavia and Albania. This created dissatisfaction, as Italy felt cheated by the outcome of the Treaty of Versailles.
- Economic Effects of War: World War I devastated Italy’s economy, leading to a sharp decline in the value of the lira and a fivefold increase in the cost of living. Unemployment surged, with 2.5 million ex-servicemen unable to find jobs.
- Contempt for the Parliamentary System: Italy’s proportional representation system led to a fragmented parliament, where many parties made it difficult to reach a consensus, resulting in political instability.
- Strikes (1919–1920): During this period, widespread strikes occurred across Italy as workers and peasants took over the lands of landlords, leading to riots and chaos.
- Political Disillusionment: Italians were disillusioned by the ineffectiveness of democratic politics and longed for a strong leader, a role that Mussolini came to fulfill.
- Leader’s Role: Benito Mussolini presented himself as a protector of private property and rights. He stood for stable government, anti-communism, and anti-church ideologies, similar to what Hitler would later adopt in Germany.
- Lack of Opposition: Socialist and communist forces in Italy failed to form a unified resistance against fascism, which allowed fascists to rise without significant challenge.
- Hypernationalism: Fascism promoted extreme nationalism, often scapegoating minorities, especially Jews. This nationalism was used to rally people around a shared identity at the expense of marginalized groups.
Features of Fascism
- Stable and Authoritative Government: In times of crisis, fascism offered a strong, centralized government that promised stability, often organizing the state in a corporate structure where employers and workers were coordinated by the state.
- Extreme Nationalism: Fascism emphasized the rebirth of the nation as a superior state, glorifying national identity after a period of perceived decline.
- One-Party State: Fascism rejected democracy, promoting a one-party system where dissent was suppressed. This often involved the cult of personality, where a charismatic leader like Mussolini or Hitler was seen as the ultimate authority. Fascism was also anti-communist, prioritizing the concentration of wealth and businesses in the hands of the state or the elite.
- Economic Self-Sufficiency: A key element of fascism was the pursuit of economic self-sufficiency, aiming to make the nation less reliant on foreign powers. The state directed the economy, but not in the Marxist sense of communism.
- Modern Forms of Propaganda: Fascist regimes were adept at using modern propaganda techniques, including mass rallies, marches, and displays, to mobilize the population and promote the ideology of the state and its leader.
- Military Strength and Violence: Fascism heavily relied on violence and militarism. Mussolini dismissed peace as “absurd,” underscoring the nature of fascist rule. Domestically and in foreign policy, fascists used force and violence to maintain control and expand their power.
- Minority Scapegoating: A defining feature of fascism was nationalism, which frequently involved blaming minorities such as Jews and Romanis for societal problems. This scapegoating was crucial to the fascist appeal by creating an “enemy” to unite against.
Outcomes of Fascism
- Industry: The government provided subsidies to encourage industrial growth, resulting in significant increases in production of silk, iron, and hydropower.
- Battle of the Lira: Mussolini revalued the lira in an attempt to achieve economic self-sufficiency. While this made domestic goods like steel and raw materials cheaper, it also made Italian products more expensive in international markets, affecting exports.
- Battle of Wheat: Mussolini pushed for self-sufficiency in food production by encouraging wheat cultivation and imposing import tariffs. While it promoted self-reliance, it also had negative side effects such as disrupting other agricultural sectors.
- Battle of Births: To boost population growth, Mussolini promoted high birth rates, idealizing large families with as many as 12 members. However, this initiative did not resonate with much of the population.
- Land Reclamation: Land reclamation projects were encouraged to increase agricultural productivity. The Pontine Marshes near Rome are a notable example of these efforts.
- Public Works Programs: These programs aimed to reduce unemployment by constructing motorways, railways, and roads, creating jobs and modernizing infrastructure.
- Racial Supremacy: Fascism promoted racial superiority, leading to the rise of racial ideologies similar to those in Nazi Germany. This belief in racial hierarchy contributed to the outbreak of World War II.
- World War II: The aggressive nationalism and racial superiority of fascist regimes, along with expansionist policies, were major factors leading to World War II.
Unsolved Problems by Fascism
- Shortage of Raw Materials: Despite its emphasis on self-sufficiency, fascism failed to address Italy’s dependence on imported raw materials like coal and oil, particularly relying on Nazi Germany for support.
- Southern Region Backwardness: While northern Italy prospered from industrial growth and wheat production, the southern regions, which relied on dairy and arable farming, became economically backward due to fascist policies like the Battle of Wheat.
- The Great Depression: Fascism could not mitigate the effects of the Great Depression, which caused high unemployment, massive debt, and a banking crisis in Italy.
- Failure of Government: Fascism lacked a welfare state. The absence of social services reflected the regime’s failure to provide essential support to its citizens.
- Corruption: Mussolini’s government was plagued by corruption, as he centralized power in himself, preventing the delegation of authority and encouraging inefficiency.
Conclusion
Fascism, while initially appearing as a strong response to crises, ultimately failed to resolve Italy’s underlying economic and social problems. It heavily relied on violence, racial supremacy, and extreme nationalism, but could not deliver sustainable solutions, especially during the Great Depression. Fascism’s legacy was one of authoritarianism, militarism, and instability, with some resurgence in places like Argentina under Perón and Portugal under Salazar in the post-World War II era.