Pitirim Sorokin

1. Write a brief note on Implications of social mobility on an Individual in different structures.

Answer: Definition of Social Mobility:

• Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups within different layers of social stratification.
• This movement is typically assessed through metrics such as occupational status, income levels, and consumption patterns of those experiencing upward or downward mobility.
• Social mobility has far-reaching implications, affecting not only individuals and groups but also the broader societal structure.

 Pioneering Study by Pitirim A. Sorokin:

• Pitirim A. Sorokin was the first to systematically study the consequences of social mobility, examining its impact on both societal and individual levels.
• Sorokin highlighted two key dimensions of social mobility’s impact:
  1. Social Consequences: These refer to the effects of social mobility on the entire society, including how it reshapes social structures and cultural norms.
  2. Social-Psychological Consequences: These focus on the impact of social mobility at the individual level, exploring how changes in social status affect personal identity, mental health, and social relationships.

 Impact of Social Mobility on Individuals:

• Modern industrial societies are typically organized around a democratic ethos that emphasizes “opportunity for all.”
• This societal expectation encourages all members to aspire to highly sought-after positions. However, when individuals fail to achieve their desired goals, they often experience significant mental strain, resulting in feelings of diminished self-worth and, in some cases, self-rejection.
• Thorstein Veblen argued that such experiences can act as barriers to self-enhancement, hindering personal growth and fulfillment.
• Furthermore, S. M. Lipset and H. L. Zetterberg noted that these psychological consequences could manifest socially, leading some individuals to reject the dominant values of the upper classes.
• This rejection may take various forms, such as embracing lower-class religious values that morally oppose the values associated with wealth and power, or engaging in rebellious actions, including joining “Robin Hood” groups, participating in revolutionary movements, or advocating for social reforms.

 Anomie and Social Disruption:

• The concept of anomie, famously explained by Émile Durkheim, becomes particularly relevant in contexts of high social mobility.
• As individuals move across social strata, the traditional definitions of roles and statuses can become distorted or replaced, leading to social disorientation.
• This disruption can have significant consequences for the socialization of both young people and adults, who may need to “re-socialize” to adapt to the new social realities.
• The widespread diffusion of insecurity among the population can result in what sociologists describe as the “atomization of the individual,” where people experience fragmented identities or become “marginal men” who struggle to find their place in society.
• Although the social-psychological consequences of social mobility can be disruptive, some individuals may find that their upward mobility affirms their self-worth and serves as a positive culmination of their efforts.

 Variations in the Impact of Social Mobility across Societies:

• Lipset and Reinhard Bendix emphasized that the effects of social mobility vary depending on the social structure in question.
• In traditional societies with an ascriptive system of stratification—where status is rigidly assigned at birth—social mobility tends to have more disruptive effects due to the high degree of status rigidity.
• In contrast, industrial societies, which are characterized by more open stratification systems, view social mobility as a normal process that can support the maintenance and stability of the social order.

 Contrasting Perspectives on Social Mobility:

• While some theorists, following the “dissociative hypothesis,” portray social mobility as a source of social disorder, others offer a more optimistic view.
• For instance, Frank Parkin argued that upward mobility can serve as a political safety valve, providing individuals with opportunities to achieve higher status and better pay.
• This fulfillment of aspirations can help prevent the development of frustration and reduce the intensity of class conflict, contributing to social stability.
• Additionally, Wilensky and Edwards, in their study of downward mobility, found that individuals who experience a decline in social status often refuse to accept their new, lower position and continue to aspire to regain their lost status.

2.  Write a short note on Social consequences of mobility.

Answer: Definition and Measurement of Mobility:

• Mobility refers to the ability of individuals or groups to move between different levels of social stratification. This movement is often assessed through changes in occupational status, income, and consumption patterns, which reflect both upward and downward shifts. The effects of mobility are not only felt by those who experience it but also have broader implications for society.

 Impact on the Structure of Society:

• Max Weber, Anthony Giddens, and Frank Parkin suggest that social mobility can lead to the expansion and growth of the middle class. Kerr and Barnard’s Embourgeoisement Thesis argues that technological advancements will increase the wages of manual workers, allowing them to attain middle-class status. This shift will transform the traditional pyramid-like social structure into a more diamond-shaped stratification system, reducing the polarization of classes in industrial economies.
• Example: In contemporary societies, technological and educational advancements have enabled many workers to enter managerial or professional roles, thus contributing to a more balanced distribution of wealth and status.

  Impact on Class Solidarity:

• Class Solidarity refers to the unity and cohesion within a particular social class. The rate of social mobility affects class solidarity in several ways:
  • Ralph Dahrendorf argues that social mobility can reduce class prejudices and conflicts by diminishing the intensity of class struggles.
  • Anthony Giddens and Karl Marx suggest that increased social mobility can lead to a decrease in class solidarity, as it undermines the collective identity of class groups.
  • Goldthorpe and Llewellyn counter this view, noting that in modern societies, higher rates of upward mobility compared to downward mobility may lead to a more homogeneous working class, potentially strengthening class solidarity.
• Example: The rise of the “new middle class” in various countries has led to a more cohesive working class, with shared interests and collective bargaining power.

Impact on Social Order:

• Emile Durkheim discussed the potential negative effects of social mobility, including its impact on social integration. Without constraints and limits on aspirations, rapid changes in social status or economic conditions can lead to a sense of normlessness or anomie.
• Pitrim Sorokin observed that social mobility can lead to instability, cultural fluidity, and decreased social solidarity, but it also fosters economic growth and social progress.
• Melvin Tumin highlighted that in contemporary societies, the emphasis on wealth and power as criteria for social mobility can devalue traditional work and disrupt social institutions like family and religion, which are increasingly judged by income and wealth.
• Lipset and Bendix pointed out that the effects of social mobility vary across different social structures. In traditional societies with rigid status systems, mobility can be more disruptive, while in industrial societies with more fluid stratification systems, mobility is a normal and beneficial process.
• Example: The shift from agrarian to industrial economies has led to changes in family structures and social institutions, reflecting the evolving criteria for social success.

Political and Social Implications:

• Frank Parkin argued that upward mobility serves as a political safety valve, providing individuals with opportunities to fulfill their aspirations and achieve higher status, thus reducing frustration and mitigating class conflict.
• Wilensky and Edwards found that downward mobility often results in individuals refusing to accept their lower status and striving to regain their previous position, which underscores the enduring aspiration for upward social mobility.
• Example: In many societies, efforts to support economic mobility through education and training programs aim to prevent frustration and maintain social stability.

3. Write a short note on the following: Vertical social mobility.

Answer: Definition of Vertical Social Mobility:

• Pitrim Sorokin defines vertical social mobility as the movement of an individual or social object between different social strata. This type of mobility can be classified into two categories based on the direction of movement:
  • Ascending Mobility: Refers to upward movement, such as achieving a promotion, acquiring a higher income, marrying into a higher social class, or moving to a more affluent neighborhood.
  • Descending Mobility: Refers to downward movement, such as experiencing a demotion, a decrease in income, marrying into a lower social class, or relocating to a less desirable neighborhood.
• Anthony Giddens’ Perspective:

• According to Anthony Giddens, individuals who experience gains in property, income, or status are considered upwardly mobile, while those who experience losses are downwardly mobile. Giddens notes that in modern societies, vertical and horizontal mobility often intersect, with one type of mobility frequently leading to or influencing the other. For example, a promotion within a company might lead to relocation to a different city, combining both vertical and horizontal mobility.

• Factors Influencing Vertical Mobility:

• Structural Factors:
  • Structural changes such as technological advancements, the growth of large corporations, increased standards of living, urbanization, and democratic governance influence vertical mobility. These factors shape the opportunities available for individuals to move up or down the social ladder.
• Individual Factors:
  • Personal attributes and circumstances such as family background, academic performance, educational achievements, and individual personality traits also impact vertical mobility.

• Social Significance of Vertical Mobility:

• The extent of vertical mobility in a society is a crucial indicator of its openness. It reflects the degree to which individuals from lower socio-economic backgrounds can advance within the social and economic hierarchy. Vertical mobility is a significant political issue, especially in societies that strive for equality of opportunity for all citizens.

• Research Findings:

• Blau and Duncan: They found that upward social mobility is a common feature of industrial societies and contributes to social stability and integration.
• Lipset and Bendix: They observed that industrialized countries experienced similar trends, including the expansion of white-collar jobs, which led to a rise in upward mobility across these societies. This mobility is seen as both a product and an indicator of social change.
• Volgy: He noted that downward mobility is less frequent but still prevalent, often resulting from job loss, corporate restructuring, or economic downturns. Additionally, divorced or separated women managing work and domestic responsibilities may face downward mobility.
• Oxford Mobility Study: This study indicated that while there are high rates of social mobility due to the expansion of higher white-collar jobs, opportunities for mobility remain highly unequal across different segments of society.
• Marshall: He pointed out that although there has been more room at the top, this has not translated into greater equality of opportunity. The opportunities to advance are still skewed, particularly against women.
• Sylvia Walby: She highlighted the ongoing issues of patriarchy in the labor market, which contribute to gender disparities in mobility, such as the overrepresentation of women in routine, lower-status jobs.

• Long-Term Process:

• Social mobility is a long-term process, and the full effects of increased openness in society may not be immediately visible within a single generation. Observing changes in mobility requires consideration of extended time frames to fully assess societal shifts.

4. To what extent the study of social mobility plays a vital part in understanding the class structure of any society? Comment.

Answer: Definition and Concept of Social Mobility:

• Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between different strata within the social hierarchy. For instance, if an individual becomes wealthy during their lifetime, this is an example of upward mobility, as they transition from a lower social class to a higher one.

• Analyzing Class Structure and Occupation:
  • To determine whether social mobility reflects changes in class structure, it is essential to examine the relationship between an individual’s class position and their occupation.
  • Goldthorpe’s Contribution: The neo-Weberian sociologist John Goldthorpe developed a relational class scheme that categorizes individuals based on their market and work situations:
    • Market Situation: This aspect considers factors such as salary, job security, and overall life chances.
    • Work Situation: This aspect focuses on the control, power, and authority associated with an occupation.
  • Goldthorpe’s classification divides society into eight classes within three main strata:
    • Service Class: Includes individuals with higher-status jobs.
    • Intermediate Class: Represents positions between the service and working classes.
    • Working Class: Encompasses those with lower-status jobs.
• Challenges in Occupational Class Schemes:
  • Occupational class schemes face limitations, particularly for economically inactive individuals such as the unemployed, students, pensioners, and children.
  • These schemes also often fail to account for the role of property ownership and wealth in determining social class.
• Research Findings on Social Mobility:
  • Oxford Mobility Study (1972): This study revealed that there were higher rates of mobility, with more long-range movement compared to earlier studies. The increase in white-collar jobs relative to blue-collar jobs provided more opportunities for upward mobility.
  • Essex Study (1984): This study identified high rates of both intergenerational (between generations) and intragenerational (within a generation) mobility. It highlighted a gender disparity, noting that women faced significant barriers to long-range mobility despite changes in the occupational structure. Women were often concentrated in specific occupations, particularly routine non-manual jobs, limiting their upward mobility.
• Social Mobility in India:
  • Impact of Occupational Changes: In India, the shift from agriculture to industrial and then to service sectors has enhanced individual incomes and market situations. Skills and education increasingly add value, contributing to upward mobility.
  • Gender Disparities: Social mobility for women in India remains limited. Although education and employment opportunities have improved, women are still underrepresented in many occupations. To enhance social mobility for women, greater focus on education, employment opportunities, and protective measures is needed.
• General Consensus:
  • Social scientists generally agree that occupation is a key indicator of class position. However, the complexity of social mobility requires consideration of various factors, including economic opportunities, societal structures, and gender dynamics.

5.  Write a note on gender and social mobility.

Answer: Social Mobility

• Definition: Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals, families, or groups between different social strata within a society. It involves changes in social status relative to others within that society.
• Factors Affecting Social Mobility:
  • Economic Growth: Sustained high economic growth can create opportunities for social advancement.
  • Achievement Motivation: High motivation for achievement can drive individuals to seek and attain higher social status.
  • Expansion of Education: Increased access to education enhances individuals’ skills and opportunities for upward mobility.
  • Urbanization: Urban areas often offer more job opportunities and resources, facilitating mobility.
  • Political Stability: A stable political environment supports economic and social structures conducive to mobility.

Gender and Social Mobility

• Gender Differences:
  • Despite overall upward mobility in absolute terms, gender plays a significant role in shaping mobility outcomes.
  • Men and women experience different rates and patterns of mobility, with systemic factors like patriarchy impacting these outcomes.
• Gender Gap in Mobility:
  • Brookings Study Findings:
    • Upward Mobility: Both men and women are upwardly mobile in absolute terms, but men generally achieve greater mobility.
    • Downward Mobility: Women are at a higher risk of downward mobility compared to men.
    • Escaping Poverty: Women find it more challenging to escape from the bottom income quintile. Women born into poverty are more likely to remain in that economic situation compared to men.

Implications

• Gender Disparities:
  • Patriarchy and Discrimination: Institutional patriarchy and gender discrimination contribute to these disparities, limiting women’s mobility despite broader economic improvements.
  • Empowerment and Equality: Efforts to empower women, promote gender equality, and address discrimination are crucial for improving social mobility for women.
• Overall Impact: While women have made progress in terms of mobility compared to their parents, significant gaps remain when compared to men. Addressing these disparities requires targeted policies and social reforms to enhance women’s opportunities and reduce systemic barriers.

6. Write a short note on types of social mobility.

Answer: Types of Social Mobility

1. Horizontal Social Mobility

• Definition: Refers to the movement of an individual or social object from one social group or status to another that is on the same level within the social hierarchy.
• Examples:
  • Transition from one factory to another with the same occupational status.
  • Moving from one neighborhood to another of similar socio-economic status.
  • Changing citizenship or moving to a different family through divorce or remarriage.
• Anthony Giddens’ Definition: Lateral mobility involving geographical movement between neighborhoods, towns, or regions.

2. Vertical Social Mobility

• Definition: Involves movement from one social stratum to another, either upward or downward.
• Types:
  • Ascending Mobility (Social Climbing): Moving to a higher social stratum.
    • Examples: Getting a promotion, experiencing a rise in income, marrying someone of higher social status, or moving to a better neighborhood.
  • Descending Mobility (Social Sinking): Moving to a lower social stratum.
    • Examples: Receiving a demotion, experiencing a drop in income, or moving to a less favorable neighborhood.
• Anthony Giddens’ Observation: Modern societies often see a combination of vertical and horizontal mobility, where one type of mobility can lead to another. For instance, a person might be promoted to a higher position in a different city.

3. Contest Mobility vs. Sponsored Mobility

• Contest Mobility:
  • Definition: Mobility achieved through individual efforts and achievements.
  • Examples: Competing for positions based on merit, such as gaining a civil servant position through competitive exams.
  • Ralph Turner’s Characterization: Common in societies like the United States, where individuals rise based on personal achievements.

• Sponsored Mobility:
  • Definition: Mobility granted or facilitated by higher social groups or societal institutions, often based on specific criteria.
  • Examples: Inheriting property or being recruited into elite groups.
  • Ralph Turner’s Characterization: Includes elite self-recruitment where children of wealthy families often inherit their social status.

4. Inter-Generational Mobility vs. Intra-Generational Mobility

• Inter-Generational Mobility:
  • Definition: Changes in social status across generations within a family.
  • Examples: A child of a factory worker becoming a successful lawyer or businessman.
• Intra-Generational Mobility:
  • Definition: Changes in social status within an individual’s lifetime, also known as career mobility.
  • Examples: An individual moving from a lower-paying job to a higher-paying career over their lifetime.

5. Absolute Social Mobility vs. Relative Social Mobility

• Absolute Social Mobility:
  • Definition: Measures the extent to which living standards or social positions have increased over time. It assesses whether individuals are better off compared to previous generations.
  • Examples: According to D.V. Glass’s 1949 study, 7.1% of sons of the lowest class achieved the highest class.
• Relative Social Mobility:
  • Definition: Refers to the comparative chances of individuals from different class backgrounds achieving a particular social position. It measures the fluidity of the society.
  • Examples: The rate at which individuals from various social backgrounds can ascend or descend within the social structure.

Conclusion

Social mobility is a multifaceted concept that involves various forms of movement within the social hierarchy. It can be horizontal or vertical, and further categorized based on the nature of the movement and the timeframe of observation. Understanding these types helps in analyzing the dynamics of social change and individual opportunities within different societies.