TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Temple Architecture of North India

Nagara School

Key Features

1. Stone Platform: Temples in North India are commonly built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
2. Absence of Boundary Walls: Unlike South Indian temples, Nagara temples typically lack boundary walls or gateways.
3. Shikhara: The tower above the sanctum. Early temples had one shikhara, while later temples had multiple.
4. Plan: The temple plan was not as large as Dravidian temples, and water ponds were generally absent.
5. Panchayatana Style: The temple is built in this style where the main shrine is on a rectangular plinth with four smaller shrines at the corners.

Types of Shikhara

1. Rekha Prasad: Square base with walls curving inward to form a point at the top, commonly seen in many temples.
2. Phamsana: Broader and shorter, with roofs made of slabs that rise smoothly to a single point. Unlike Rekha Prasad, the walls do not curve inward.
3. Valabhi: Rectangular structure with a vaulted roof, resembling a wagon shape.

Sub-schools of Nagara

1. Odisha School: Characterized by Shikharas that extend vertically before curving inward. The main type is square with circular reaches. Temples often have intricate carvings and open interiors.
   Example: Konark Temple
2. Chandel School: Shikharas are curved from bottom to top, with miniature towers and central towers. The temples are viewed as a single unit. Example: Khajuraho Temples
3. Solanki School: Related to the Chandel School but with domed covers that resemble a true dome. Elaborate carvings can be found on both the inner and outer walls. Example: Sun Temple, Modhera

South Indian Temple Architecture – Dravidian Style

Key Features

• Walled Enclosure: The entire temple complex is enclosed by a wall and has a large, enclosed courtyard.
• Gopuram: The entrance gateway situated at the center of the front wall, a prominent feature of South Indian temples that is absent in North Indian temples.
• Vimana: The main temple tower, designed as a stepped pyramid that rises geometrically, unlike the curving Nagara-style Shikhara.
• Guardian Deities: Fierce sculptures of dwarapalas (door guardians) guard the entrance to the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum).
• Water Tank: A water tank or source is often found within the temple complex, used for ritual cleansing.
• Shapes and Layouts: Temples are built in five distinct shapes:
• Square: Called Kuta or Chaturasra
• Rectangular: Called Shala or Ayatasra
• Elliptical: Called Gaja-Prishta or elephant-backed, also referred to as Frittata (from wagon-vaulted apsidal chaityas)
• Circular: Called Britta
• Octagonal or Ashtanga shapes are also found.

Sub-Groups of Dravidian Temples

1. Pallavas:

• Period: Ruled between the 3rd and 9th centuries CE, covering parts of modern-day Andhra Pradesh (early Pallavas) and Tamil Nadu (later Pallavas).
• Transition: Pallava architecture showcases the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone-built temples.
• Rock-Cut: Early Pallava temples were rock-cut, but some evidence suggests that structural buildings were already known during the excavation of these rock-cut temples.
• Patronage: Key buildings are attributed to Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of Chalukyan king Pulakesin II. His successor, Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, built many monuments, giving the name Mamallapuram.
• Pillars: Pillars and mandapas of rock-cut temples have their unique characteristics.
• Monoliths: In Mahabalipuram, the monolithic ratha temples and mandapas are exquisite examples. These are known as the Pancha Pandava Rathas.
• Buddhist Influence: The rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram reflect Buddhist influences, particularly in the ratha temples, where some follow the Buddhist Vihara model.
• Earliest Gopurams: The construction of gopurams began during the Pallava era, with the earliest example being the inshore temple of Mahabalipuram.
• Royal Motifs: Base pillars of structural temples often have motifs like lions, later adopted by the Cholas as a royal insignia.
• Free-Standing Structures: Ratha temples, unlike earlier temples, are free-standing, without structural support.
  • Example: Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram.

2. Cholas:

The Cholas perfected the Dravidian temple style inherited from the Pallavas. During their reign, the architecture became more elaborate, evolving beyond the early cave temples. Notable features and developments include:

• Prominent Gopurams: Gopurams (temple gateways) became more prominent under the Cholas and were heavily decorated with carvings from various Puranas.
• Vimanas: Vimanas (temple towers) became larger and more grand during the Chola period.
  • Example: The Brihadeeswara temple’s Vimana is 66 meters tall.
• Sculptors: There was an increased emphasis on the use of sculptures in temple construction.
• Dikpalas: Transparent directions (guardians of directions) where deities were placed in the architectural design.
• Devakoshta: Decorative niches on the temple walls where the deities were sculpted.
• Parivara Devatas: Temples featured subsidiary shrines for other deities known as parivara devatas, highly elaborated in the Chola temples.

Important Temples of the Chola Era

1. Brihadeeswara Temple: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, built by Raja Raja I in 1011 AD. This is the first fully granite temple in the world, with notable features including sculptures of Lakshmi, Vishnu, and Ardhanarisvara on the outer walls.
2. Gangaikondacholapuram Temple: Built by Rajendra I to commemorate his victory in the Ganges delta. Rajendra I also constructed the Chola-Gangam irrigation tank here.
3. Darasuram Temple: Built by Rajaraja II (1146-1172 AD) in the Tanjore district, an example of later Chola temple architecture.
4. Kampahareswara Temple: A later Chola temple dedicated to Shiva, located in Tribhuvanam. Here, Shiva is worshipped as Kampahareswara, believed to have removed the quaking of a king haunted by a Brahmarakshasa.

3. Vesara Style

The Vesara style combines elements of both Nagara and Dravidian architecture. Vesara is believed to originate from Karnataka, and the term comes from the Sanskrit word Vishra, meaning “area to take a long walk.” Key features of Vesara temples include:

• Ornamentation and Decoration: Temple walls and pillars are richly ornamented with decorations, a quality particularly indigenous to the Chalukyan style.
• Vimana: The Chalukyan builders modified the Dravida tower by minimizing the height of each storey and arranging them in a descending order of height from base to top. Each storey had rich ornamentation.
• Transformation of Nagara Tower: Instead of the Nagara-style inclined storey, Vesara introduces modifications, with a vertical shape of the tower.
• Mantapa: The temple mantapa (pillared hall) featured two types of roofs:
  • Domical Ceilings: Dome-like ceilings standing on four pillars.
  • Square Ceilings: Vigorous ceilings decorated with mythological images.
• Pillars: Chalukyan temples featured miniature decorative pillars with their own artistic value.
• Examples of Vesara Style:

• Mahadeva Temple, Ittagi
• Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal
• Temples at Aihole
• Use of Sculptural Themes: Vesara temples often feature a combination of mythological and everyday life scenes in their sculptures, enhancing the decorative appeal of temple structures. The Chalukyan pillars in these temples often depict scenes from Hindu epics such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as intricate carvings of deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma.
• Structural Innovation: Vesara style innovations include the use of curvilinear spires (shikharas), while the mantapas (halls) were supported by decorative columns with lavish ornamentation. Unlike the earlier flat-roofed mantapas, the Vesara mantapas began to incorporate more domical ceilings, adding to the grandeur of the architecture.
• Gopurams and Towers: While gopurams (gateway towers) are more characteristic of the Dravidian style, the Vesara temples also employed tall, tapering towers with intricate carvings on their surface, enhancing their height and architectural significance.

Important Temples in Vesara Style:

1. Mahadeva Temple, Ittagi: The Mahadeva Temple is located in Ittagi, Karnataka, and is one of the finest examples of Kalyani Chalukyan architecture. The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and features highly intricate carvings and a grand mantapa with decorative pillars.
2. Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal: The Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal is another classic example of the Vesara style, constructed during the reign of King Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty. The temple has an elaborate shikhara and beautiful sculptures of deities, scenes from epics, and mythological themes.
3. Temples at Aihole: Aihole is often referred to as the “cradle of Indian temple architecture” and houses several early Vesara style temples. The Durga Temple and the Lad Khan Temple are notable for their innovative pillared halls, curved towers, and ornamental motifs on walls and ceilings.
4. Papanatha Temple, Pattadakal: Built in the mid-8th century AD, the Papanatha Temple showcases the gradual evolution of the Vesara style. This temple, though relatively small, is rich in sculptural embellishments and has an intricately carved vimana.
5. Kashivishveshwara Temple, Lakkundi: Located in Lakkundi, Karnataka, this temple is an example of later Vesara style, showing advanced developments in tower construction and decorative sculptures. The vimana here is richly adorned with finely crafted sculptures of gods and celestial beings.

4. The Confluence of Nagara and Dravida Types

• Location: The Vesara style, a blend of Nagara (North Indian) and Dravida (South Indian) elements, developed in regions between Northern and Southern India.
• Plan: Vesara temples usually feature a shrine, subsidiary shrines, and a panchayatan-style arrangement, reflecting influences from the Nagara School.
• Vimanas: Dravida influences are particularly seen in the vimana (tower) structure, especially in temples built during early Chalukya rule.
• Gopurams: The presence of gopurams (temple gateways) is optional, depending on whether the temple leans more towards Dravida or Nagara influence.
• Vestibule: The design of the vestibule, which connects the sanctum to the mantapa, often resembles structures seen in Orissan temples.

5. Hoysala Architecture

The Hoysala style emerged after the decline of the Cholas and Pandyas and centered around the Mysore region.

• Independent Style: Though a subsidiary of the Western Chalukya style, the Hoysala architecture evolved into an independent style, characterized by Dravidian elements.
• Makara Torana: These are ornate, sculpted archways leading to the mantapa (temple hall), with intricate depictions of mythological creatures like the Makara.
• Mantapa: Hoysala temples feature both outer and inner mantapas. The ceilings of these halls are heavily decorated with mythological figures and floral designs.
• Faith: Hoysala temples often integrated elements from both Hinduism and Jainism. Most temples are dedicated to Vishnu or Shiva, while some follow Jain faith.
• Raised Platform: The temples are frequently built on a raised platform known as a Jagati, which allows devotees to perform circumambulation (pradakshina) around the garbhagriha (sanctum).
• Star-shaped Plan: The temples often follow a star-shaped design. The walls of the temple exhibit a unique zig-zag pattern that is a hallmark of Hoysala architecture.
• Example: The Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi Temple is notable for its exception, as it is dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva, unlike most other Hoysala temples.