INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Indian Philosophy refers to several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. 

Orthodox (Astika) Schools

Orthodox schools, originally called sanatani dharma, are collectively referred to as Hinduism in modern times. The ancient Vedas are their source and scriptural authority. 

1. Samkhya:

• Description: Samkhya is the oldest system of orthodox Indian philosophy. It divides reality into two entities: Purusha (self, soul, or mind) and Prakriti (matter, agency, or energy). Purusha is unchangeable, while Prakriti brings change to all objects.
• Book: Samkya Sutra
• Chief Proponent: Kapila
• Means of Salvation: Gaining Knowledge
• Tools: Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), and Shabdha (Hearing)

1. Yoga:

• Description: Yoga unites Purusha (spirit) with Prakriti (matter) and employs techniques that control the body, mind, and senses. This union is a means to achieve freedom or Mukti.
• Book: Yoga Sutra
• Chief Proponent: Patanjali
• Means of Salvation: Physical application of yogic techniques to release Purusha from Prakriti
• Tools: Self-control (Yama), rules observation (Niyama), postures (Asana), breath control (Pranayama), fixing the mind (Dharana), meditation (Dhyana), and merging of self (Samadhi)

1. Nyaya:

• Description: Nyaya emphasizes that nothing is acceptable unless proven by reason and experience (scientific approach). It focuses on logical thinking.
• Book: Nyaya Sutra
• Chief Proponent: Gautama
• Means of Salvation: Logical thinking
• Tools: The Nyaya Sutras outline four ways of attaining valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony.

1. Vaisheshika:

• Description: Vaisheshika explains the world through atomic theory. All objects in the universe are composed of a finite number of atoms, and Brahman is the force that gives life to these atoms.
• Chief Proponent: Kanada
• Means of Salvation: It is believed that God is the guiding principle and individuals are rewarded or punished based on karma.
• Tools: The belief in the five elements (earth, water, air, fire, and ether) and law of karma.

1. Mimamsa:

• Description: Mimamsa is centered on the validity of knowledge and emphasizes the study of the Vedas and rituals.
• Book: Samhita, Brahmana, Yajurveda
• Chief Proponent: Jaimini
• Means of Salvation: Perform rituals after understanding them.
• Tools: Understanding the Vedas, as they provide all necessary knowledge for salvation through rituals.

1. Vedanta:

• Focuses on the Upanishads, emphasizing spiritual understanding over rituals.
• Book: Upanishads, Brahmanas
• Chief Proponent: Badarayana
• Means of Salvation: Understand Brahma
• Divisions:
  • Advaita (by Adi Shankaracharya): Asserts that Atman (individual self) and Brahman (universal self) are the same, and knowing this brings liberation.
  • Vishishtadvaita (by Ramanuja): Believes all diversity is part of a unified whole.
  • Dvaita (by Madhvacharya): Considers Brahman and Atman to be separate, with Bhakti (devotion) being the path to salvation.
  • Dvaitadvaita (by Nimbarka): States that Brahman is the highest reality, and all control comes from Brahman.
  • Shuddhadvaita (by Vallabhacharya): Stresses that both God and the individual soul are the same.
  • Achintya Bheda Abheda (by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu): Emphasizes that Jivatman (individual self) is both different and not different from Brahman.

Unorthodox (Nastika) Schools

These schools reject the authority of the Vedas and follow alternative philosophical paths. Major schools include:

1. Charvaka:

• A materialistic and atheistic school that denies the existence of the afterlife and believes in hedonism—that pleasure is the ultimate goal in life.
• Book: Brahmasutra
• Chief Proponent: Badrayana
• Means of Salvation: There is no need for salvation; focus is on enjoying life.

1. Buddhist Philosophy:

• Non-theistic in nature, Buddhism does not involve the existence or non-existence of God. The focus is on escaping suffering through wisdom and meditation.
• Chief Proponent: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)
• Means of Salvation: Nirvana, a state where ignorance, desire, and attachment are overcome, leading to liberation from suffering.

1. Jain Philosophy:

• Chief Proponent: Mahavira 
• Means of salvation: The basic principle is anekantavada, the idea that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true. 
• Tools to be used: Jainism is based on three guiding principles. These roughly translate as correct perception (samyak darshana), correct knowledge (samyak jnana), and correct conduct (samyak charitra).

Role of Buddhism in shaping ancient Indian art and literature

• Stupa Tradition: Stupas are structures that hold the relics of Buddha and monks. Notable stupas include Sanchi Stupa, Dharmarajika Stupa, and Kesariya Stupa. Built by Emperor Ashoka and Satavahanas in the Amaravati stupa tradition.
• Cave Art: During the Mauryan period, caves like Barabar and Nagarjuna Caves were created for Buddhist monks. These caves are polished and have fresco paintings. The Ajanta caves are inscribed by Buddhist monks and are famous for their murals.
• Rock-cut Temples: The earliest rock-cut temples go back to Lomas Rishi Cave, constructed by Ashoka.
• Sculpture: Art styles such as Mathura school, Gandhara school, and Amaravati school emerged under Buddhist influence.
• Literature: Famous Buddhist texts include the Tripitakas (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma Pitaka), Milinda Panho, Jatakas, and others.

Role of Jainism in shaping ancient Indian art and literature

• Cave Art: Jain caves like Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Odisha were patronized by King Kharavela. They feature sculptures of Jain monks and royal processions.
• Sculpture: Jain sculptures, such as Gomateshwara in Shravanabelagola and Yaksha/Yakshini sculptures, were notable. The Parkham Yaksha near Mathura is also significant.
• Temple Architecture: Famous Jain temples include Dilwara Temple, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Palitana Temples, and temples in Khajuraho and Abu.
• Literature: Jain texts were written in Prakrit and include Agamas, Kalpasutras, and Acharanga Sutra, as well as biographies of saints like Parshavanatha and Mahavira.

Role of Indian philosophy and tradition in conceiving and shaping monuments and art in India

• Ashoka’s Contributions: Ashoka institutionalized a common Dhamma, a common language, and Brahmi script, which was inscribed on stone pillars and rock surfaces to share his ideas and teachings.
  • Example: Edicts of Ashoka in Kandahar.
• Gupta Art: Religious places were adorned with statues of gods and goddesses, depicting qualities of power or fortune.
  • Example: The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the cave temples at Udaigiri hills.
• Period of Pallavas and Cholas: Temples became central hubs for village societal interaction, leading to the extensive building of temples.
  • Example: Ratha at Mahabalipuram and the structural temples such as Kailashanath and Vaikunthaperumal temples by the Pallavas.
• Influence of Performance: Traditional music and dance performances were a key part of temple traditions.
  • Example: Kerala temples with their kūṭṭambalam halls for performances.
• Tradition of Vastu Sastra: The art and architecture of temples were guided by the Vastu Sastra philosophy, ensuring divine alignment and purpose behind structures.
• City Planning: Varna system of Vedic society influenced the spatial planning of villages and cities.
  • Example: Sripuram village in Tamil Nadu had distinct sections for different societal classes.
• Buddhist Contributions: Buddhist reforms affected architecture and introduced Chaitya and Vihara structures in monasteries.
  • Example: Ajanta, Ellora, and Bagh caves rock-cut architecture.
• Post Mauryan Sculptures: Buddhist motifs, particularly the life cycle of Buddha, became key aspects of Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati schools of sculpture.
• Effect of Vaishnavism: The Bhakti movement, poetry, and painting styles, especially in Rajasthani and Pahari schools, were shaped by Vaishnavism.

Role of Vedic Literature in Indian Philosophical Thought

• Samkhya: The Samkhya school is based on dualism, inspired by Rigveda, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita. It discusses the duality of Atma (soul) and Bharaman (the ultimate reality).
• Yoga: Originating from the Vedas and Upanishads, Yoga focuses on uniting the mind and senses through physical and mental practices.
• Vaisheshika: This school forms the basis for atomic theory, believing that Vedas are the most reliable source of knowledge.
• Mimamsa: Mimamsa elevates dharma and rituals to a high pedestal. It emphasizes the authority of the Vedas and ritualistic practices.
• Vedanta: The Vedanta school draws heavily from the Upanishads and discusses different forms of dualism, which later evolved into various schools of Vedanta.
• Charvaka: The Charvaka school rejects the Vedas and focuses on materialism, rejecting the concept of an afterlife or rebirth.
• Ajivika: A fatalist school that believes everything is predetermined, placing karma on a higher pedestal than the Vedas.
• Buddhism and Jainism: Both reject the authority of the Vedas and the belief in God as the creator of the universe.