Rajasthan, known for its rich cultural heritage, has traces of early human activities dating back to the Stone Age. Evidence of human habitation and lifestyle during this period is primarily concentrated around the Banas River and its tributaries. The archaeological findings from various sites shed light on early agricultural practices, animal husbandry, and tool-making techniques. Here are some significant sites from this era:
- Bagore (Bhilwara District)
- Location: Situated on the banks of the Kothari River in the Bhilwara district.
- Historical Significance:
- Bagore holds great importance for being among the earliest sites where evidence of agriculture and animal husbandry has been unearthed. This suggests that early humans here had transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle to a more settled, agrarian-based society.
- Miniature stone tools, which include microliths, have been discovered here, providing insight into the tool-making skills of early humans.
- A unique find from Bagore is a hole needle, indicating advanced craftsmanship and possibly early sewing or other textile-related activities.
- Excavation: The site was excavated by Virendra Nath Mishra, who contributed significantly to understanding the early agrarian society in Rajasthan.
- Tilwara (Barmer District)
- Location: Found on the banks of the Luni River in the Barmer district.
- Historical Significance:
- Like Bagore, Tilwara is notable for evidence of animal husbandry, reflecting the early domestication of animals by humans in the region.
- Archaeologists have uncovered small rock tools at Tilwara, which demonstrate the tool-making abilities of early inhabitants.
- A particularly interesting discovery at this site is a fire altar, which might indicate ritualistic practices or early forms of worship involving fire.
- Excavation: This site was also excavated by Virendra Nath Mishra, whose work has helped reveal the early lifestyle and practices of humans in this region.
Other Significant Stone Age Centers in Rajasthan:
- Budha Pushkar (Ajmer District): Another site of historical importance, Budha Pushkar adds to the understanding of early human activities in Rajasthan, though detailed findings specific to this site are less documented compared to Bagore and Tilwara.
- Jayal (Nagaur District): Known for traces of prehistoric human habitation, Jayal provides additional context to the early history of the region.
- Didwana (Nagaur District): Didwana is significant for its salt lakes and surrounding archaeological sites, where tools and artifacts from the Stone Age have been found, offering insight into the daily lives of early humans.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION / HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION / INDUS-SARASWATI CIVILIZATION IN RAJASTHAN
The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization or the Indus-Saraswati Civilization, is one of the world’s earliest urban cultures. While the civilization is primarily associated with sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, several significant sites in Rajasthan provide valuable insights into this ancient culture. These sites reveal aspects of urban planning, agriculture, social organization, and trade during this period.
- Kalibangan (Hanumangarh District)
- Location: Kalibangan is located on the banks of the Ghaggar River in the Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. The Ghaggar is often identified with the ancient Saraswati River, which played a crucial role in the development of Harappan settlements.
- Etymology: The name “Kalibangan” translates to “Black Bangles,” likely referring to the black pottery discovered at the site.
- Discovery and Excavation:
- First Discovery: The site was first discovered by Amalanand Ghosh in 1952 AD.
- Excavation Period: The actual excavation work was carried out between 1961 and 1969 by Balkrishna Thapar and Brijwasi Lal, uncovering five different stratified levels. These levels provide a detailed view of the pre-Harappan and Harappan periods.
- Findings:
- Harappan and Pre-Harappan Levels:
- The first and second levels revealed remnants of the early Harappan period, while the third, fourth, and fifth levels correspond to the developed Harappan phase.
- Remnants similar to the pre-Harappan Kalibangan period were also found at Kotdiji in present-day Pakistan, indicating cultural continuity between these regions.
- Agricultural Evidence: The pre-Harappan settlement at Kalibangan was protected by a security rampart, suggesting the presence of organized community life. Evidence of agriculture has been discovered in the southeastern direction of the site, with findings indicating that the people cultivated wheat and barley as two primary crops.
- City Structure: The Harappan period settlement was divided into two parts:
- The western part was raised and served as a fortified area housing administrative buildings.
- The eastern part, lower in elevation, was a lower town surrounded by its own security rampart. It likely functioned as the residential area for the general population.
- Near the eastern gate of the security wall, there was a building that might have served as a gatekeeper’s room, indicating regulated access to the settlement.
- Fire Altars: Seven fire altars have been found, indicating the ritualistic or religious practices of the people of Kalibangan.
- Urban Planning: Kalibangan showcased a highly organized urban layout, with roads intersecting at right angles and built with concrete bricks. Unlike modern urban designs, the houses had doors that did not open onto the main roads, possibly for privacy or security.
- Drainage and Housing: The town had an advanced drainage system, with brick-lined drains and some wooden drains used within houses. The houses themselves were constructed using a combination of raw bricks and ornamental bricks.
- Burial Practices: Evidence of couple burials suggests family-based social structures and beliefs in an afterlife.
- Notable Discoveries: Archaeologists found a child’s skull with six holes, which is believed to be evidence of early medical practices, potentially a form of cranial surgery.
- Artifacts: The site has yielded various artifacts, including bull figurines, red pottery with black and red geometric decorations, cylindrical seals, copper tools, ivory combs, conch ornaments, and earthen bangles. These discoveries highlight the artistic and cultural achievements of the Kalibangan people.
- Trade: Kalibangan was an active participant in trade, with grains and copper being sent to other Harappan sites, indicating a complex trade network.
- Pottery: The site is known for its highly developed pottery industry, with the discovery of beautifully crafted red and black pottery.
- Harappan and Pre-Harappan Levels:
- Museum: A museum was built in 1985-86 by the Government of India to preserve and showcase the findings from Kalibangan.
- Sothi Civilization (Bikaner Region)
- Location: The archaeological sites around Bikaner are collectively referred to as the Sothi Civilization.
- Significance: Amalanand Ghosh described Sothi as the origin place of the Harappan Civilization, also known as Kalibanga I, which predates the urban Harappan phase.
- Major Centers:
- Savaniya and Pugal are key sites in the Sothi Civilization, contributing to our understanding of early settlements in the region.
AHAR CIVILIZATION (BANAS CIVILIZATION)
The Ahar Civilization, also known as the Banas Civilization, is another significant ancient settlement in Rajasthan, contemporary to the Harappan Civilization.
- Ahar (Udaipur District)
- Location: Ahar is situated on the banks of the Aayad / Berach River, a tributary of the Banas River, in present-day Udaipur district.
- Other Names: Locally, it was known as Dhulkot, while the ancient name is Aghatpur.
- Significance:
- Due to its proximity to the Banas River, the civilization is often referred to as the Banas Civilization.
- Ahar is known as the civilization of the mounds of the dead, due to its burial practices.
- Construction: The houses in Ahar had stone foundations, with walls made stronger using quartz chips mixed into the soil, showcasing early engineering techniques.
- Social Structure: The discovery of six cooking stoves in one house indicates the existence of joint family systems and possibly communal feasts.
- Artifacts: Artifacts such as grinding tools, pans with double-mouthed stoves, and various types of utensils suggest a well-developed culinary culture. The pottery included black and red pottery, known locally as gore or koth.
- Food Habits: The people of Ahar cultivated wheat, jowar, and rice, and consumed a mix of vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods.
- Burial Practices: Burials were accompanied by jewelry and ornaments, reflecting a belief in life after death.
- Copper Smelting: Ahar was also known as the Copper City, as copper smelting furnaces were found here, indicating a thriving metalworking industry.
- Trade Relations: The presence of water pots similar to those in Iran suggests contact with the Iranian civilization, pointing to a trade network.
- Discoveries: A Greek coin featuring Apollo suggests that Ahar was involved in trade beyond the Indian subcontinent.
- Excavation: The site was excavated by Ratan Chandra Agarwal, Akshay Kirti Vyas, Virendra Nath Mishra, and Cheerful Dhiraj Sankalia.
Other Centers of Ahar Civilization:
- Gilund (Rajsamand District): Excavated by Brijbasi Lal, V.S. Shinde, and Gregory Poshal. Unlike Ahar, pucca (fired) bricks were found here, along with five types of pottery (plain, black, polished, painted red, and black), clay toys resembling animals, stone balls, and ivory bangles.
- Balathal (Udaipur District): Excavated by Virendra Nath Mishra, revealing iron-smelting furnaces, tube wells, hand-woven cloth, and a building with 11 houses, highlighting advanced metalwork and textile production.
- Ojhiyana (Bhilwara District): Excavations led by B.R. Meena and Alok Tripathi uncovered statues of bulls and cows, indicating reverence for these animals and their importance to local agriculture.
Vedic Period
- Remains: Vedic-period remains have been found in Anupgarh, Tarkhan Wala Dera, and Chak-64 in the Sriganganagar district, pointing to the presence of Vedic communities.
Epic Period (Ramayana and Mahabharata)
- Ramayana: According to the epic, when the sea initially refused to allow a bridge for Rama to cross to Lanka, he aimed his weapon towards Rajasthan, symbolically turning the area into a desert.
- Mahabharata:
- Rajasthan’s Jangladesha (modern-day Bikaner) was under Kaurava-Pandava influence, while Matsya Kingdom (modern Alwar and nearby areas) was a friend or ally. The Pandavas spent their final year of exile in disguise in the court of King Virat of the Matsya kingdom.
- During the Mahabharata war, King Virat supported the Pandavas.
Mahajanapada Period
- Matsya Mahajanapada:
- Area: Covered the southwestern part of Alwar, Jaipur, Bharatpur, Dholpur, and Karauli.
- Capital: Viratnagar (Jaipur).
- Sources: Information about Matsya comes from the Rigveda, Shatapatha Brahmin, Kaushitaki Upanishad, and the Mahabharata.
- Post-Mahabharata: After the Mahabharata war, Matsya became more powerful while other regions like Kuru and Yadava weakened. However, it was eventually subdued by the Chedi Mahajanapada and later absorbed into the Magadha empire.
- Shursen Mahajanapada:
- Capital: Mathura.
- Area: Included parts of modern Alwar, Bharatpur, Dhaulpur, and Karauli.
- Kuru Mahajanapada:
- Capital: Indraprastha (Delhi).
- Area: Northern part of Alwar, reflecting its influence in the region during this period.
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF RAJASTHAN
Rajasthan’s ancient history is marked by the presence of various civilizations and cultures, including the Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedic period, and subsequent dynasties. These civilizations left behind rich archaeological evidence, inscriptions, coins, and architectural structures that provide insights into their social, economic, and cultural lives. Here is an overview of significant ancient civilizations and sites in Rajasthan:
Major Ancient Sites and Civilizations
- Madhyamika (Present-day Chittorgarh and Udaipur Districts)
- Capital: Madhyamika.
- Historical Importance:
- Madhyamika is one of the earliest recorded settlements in Rajasthan, with references in the Ashtadhyayi of Panini, Mahabhashya of Patanjali, and the Mahabharata.
- It served as a significant Jain center, as mentioned in the Badli inscription, the first known inscription from Rajasthan.
- Discovery:
- Excavator: The first excavation of Madhyamika was conducted by Dr. Bhandarkar in 1920 AD. His work provided a foundational understanding of the site.
- Malav Janapada (Jaipur and Tonk Districts)
- Capital: Tonk, also known as the Kheda civilization.
- Historical Significance:
- The Malav Janapada is known for the maximum number of coins discovered in Rajasthan, providing evidence of a flourishing economy.
- The coins were primarily obtained from Nagar and Raidh, the latter being referred to as Tatanagar of ancient India, highlighting its importance as a trade and cultural center.
- Excavator: Kailashnath Puri conducted significant excavations in Raidh.
- Yodhey Janapada (Ganganagar and Hanumangarh Districts)
- Historical Significance:
- The Junagadh Girnar inscription of Rudradaman, a ruler of the Saka dynasty, provides information about the Yodhey Janapada’s dominance. The inscription indicates that the Yodhey successfully resisted the Kushans and adopted the title Veer, reflecting their military prowess.
- Shalv Janapada (Alwar District)
- Location: Centered in Alwar, the Shalv Janapada was an important political entity in ancient Rajasthan.
- Arjunayan Janapada (Alwar and Bharatpur Districts)
- Location: Covered parts of modern Alwar and Bharatpur, contributing to the region’s rich historical landscape.
- Rajnya Janapada (Bharatpur District)
- Location: Centered in Bharatpur, Rajnya Janapada played a vital role in the ancient political structure of Rajasthan.
KEY SITES AND HISTORICAL PERIODS
Bairath / Viratnagar
- Maurya Period:
- Discovery: In 1837 AD, Captain Burt discovered Ashoka’s Bhabru inscription from the Bijak hill in Bairath. The inscription highlights Ashoka’s devotion to the Buddha, Sangha, and Dhamma and references seven Buddhist texts.
- Other Findings: In 1871 AD, another inscription of Ashoka was found on Bhima hill by Carlyle. These inscriptions emphasize the spread of Buddhism in the region.
- Monasteries: The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) mentioned eight Buddhist monasteries in this area, indicating its religious significance.
- Destruction: Over time, these monasteries were destroyed by the Hun ruler Mihirkul.
- Excavations: King Sawai Ram Singh II of Jaipur conducted excavations, uncovering a gold plank, believed to be linked to Lord Buddha. Further excavations were conducted by Dayaram Sahni in 1936 AD, and by Nilaratna Banerjee and Kailashnath Dixit in 1962-63 AD.
- Cultural Artifacts: Bairath is known for its rock paintings and inscriptions in Shankhalipi script, offering glimpses into the art and language of that time.
- Later Developments: According to the Mansarovar inscription of 713 A.D., King Maan Maurya ruled over Bairath. This inscription mentions Maheshwar, Bhima, Bhoj, and Maan, key figures of the Maurya lineage in the region.
Post-Mauryan Period
- Greek Influence:
- Menander, a Greek ruler, conquered Madhyamika in 150 AD, leaving behind 16 Greek coins found in Bairath, indicating trade and cultural exchanges.
- Kushan Influence:
- Coins from Kushan kings Huvishka and Vasudev have been discovered, particularly at Noeh in Bharatpur, where a 5-meter high Yaksha idol was found, locally known as Jakh Baba.
- The site of Rang Mahal in Hanumangarh yielded Kushan period artifacts, including red vessels with black designs and a guru-disciple sculpture, highlighting cultural continuity in the region.
- Excavator: Dr. Hanarid from Sweden conducted excavations at Rang Mahal.
Gupta Period
- Political Influence: According to the Prayag inscription of Samudragupta, the republics of Rajasthan acknowledged his supremacy.
- Coinage: A significant number of Gupta coins were found in Nagalachail (Bharatpur), indicating economic stability.
- Temples and Architecture:
- The Bhimlat temple was constructed during the reign of King Vishnuvadharn of the Varik dynasty.
- Queen Chitralekha of Pratihara king Lakshmana San built the Usha temple.
- A Shiva temple was built by the Hun ruler Mihirkul at Bardoli and Charchaima (Kota), reflecting Gupta architecture.
- In Badwa (Baran), a Gupta period inscription was found, mentioning Mokhari rulers. The site also yielded inscribed pillars, adding to the historical knowledge of the region.
Post-Gupta Period
- Bhinmal (Jalore):
- Capital: It was the capital of the Chavada dynasty. According to the Basantgarh inscription, Vermalat, a Chavada king, ruled during this time.
- Literary Contribution: Poet Magha, author of Shishupala Vadh, hailed from Bhinmal. His grandfather Suprabhadeva served as an administrator under Vermalat.
- Brahmagupta, known as the Newton of India, was also from Bhinmal. He authored Brahmasphuta Siddhanta and Khandakhadak, significant works in ancient Indian mathematics and astronomy.
- Later Rule: The Gurjara-Pratiharas eventually overtook Bhinmal. Hiuen Tsang referred to Bhinmal as Pe lo mo lo, indicating its historical prominence.
- Archaeological Finds: Excavations by Ratna Chandra Agarwal revealed Roman amphoras and Greek double-handled jugs, showcasing the extent of trade and cultural connections.
Other Notable Archaeological Sites
- Ganeshwar (Sikar District)
- Location: Situated on the banks of the Kantali River.
- Significance: Known as the mother of copper civilizations due to the discovery of extensive copper artifacts and tools.
- Flood Protection: The settlement used rock dams for protection against floods.
- Excavator: Ratna Chandra Agarwal.
- Sunehri (Jhunjhunu District)
- Location: On the banks of the Kantali River.
- Period: Iron Age Center, where people used rice and horse chariots, suggesting advanced agricultural and transportation practices.
- Founders: Established by the Vedic Aryans.
- Kurada (Nagaur District)
- Significance: Referred to as the City of Tools due to discoveries of numerous agricultural implements.
- Iraswal (Udaipur District)
- Significance: Known as the Industrial City of ancient times, where iron extraction was practiced. Bones and milk teeth found here indicate burial practices and lifestyle.
- Jodhpur
- Location: Situated along the Sabi River in Jaipur.
- Artifacts: Iron smelting furnaces have been uncovered, indicating a metalworking tradition.
- Naliyasar (Sambhar, Jaipur District)
- A site of archaeological importance in the region.
- Baror (Sriganganagar District)
- Location: On the banks of the ancient Saraswati River.
- Findings: Pre-Harappan artifacts, including 8,000 beads and button-shaped seals. The Lajvard bead, typically found only in Afghanistan, indicates trade ties.
Rock Paintings in Rajasthan
- Locations: Found in areas like Alaniya, Rawatbhata, and Kanyadah along the Chambal River in Kota.
- Discovery: Jagatnarayan discovered rock paintings in Alaniya.
- Other Sites: Garadda, near the Chhaja River in Bundi, was a center for rock art. Dodikar and Harsora (Alwar) and Sohanpura (Sikar) also revealed significant rock paintings, showcasing early artistic expressions in Rajasthan.