CLIMATE CHANGE

CLIMATE CHANGE

In 2020, the World Economic Forum ranked climate change as the biggest risk to the economy and society. The effects of climate change are being increasingly released in today’s day and its multi-sectoral impact.

Major Data Temperature Rise: The average global temperature has increased by about 1.4 degrees Fahrenheit over the past 100 years (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Decline in Ice Cover: Arctic sea ice is now declining at a rate of 13.1 percent per decade. Emissions Data: Electricity and Heat Production account for 25% of 2010 global greenhouse gas emissions. Transportation accounts for 14% of 2010 global greenhouse gas emissions. Agriculture accounts for 24% of 2010 global greenhouse gas emissions. IPCC 6th Assessment Report: Highest Emissions: Average annual global greenhouse gas emissions in the decade of 2010–19 were at their highest levels in human history. Limiting global warming to around 1.5 degrees Celsius requires global GHG emissions to peak before 2025 at the latest and be reduced by 43% by 2030. Climate Change in Numbers 2.1°F: The increase in the Earth’s temperature. 10x: The rate of current global warming compared to natural climate cycles. 2.6 inches: The rise in global sea levels. 30%: The increase in the ocean’s acidity. 100x: The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide compared to pre-industrial levels. 150 years: About how long we’ve known about climate change.

Causes of Climate Change

1. Natural Causes:

• Milankovitch Cycles: The Milankovitch Theory explains the 3 cyclical changes in Earth’s orbit and tilt that cause climate fluctuations.
• Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanic eruptions discharge carbon dioxide, but they may also emit aerosols that scatter incoming solar radiation, causing a slight cooling effect.
• Sunspots: Changes in sunspots impact climate, with fewer sunspots associated with cooler climates and more sunspots potentially contributing to warmer climates.
• Movement of Tectonic Plates: These changes affect global circulation patterns of air and ocean water and the climate of the continents.
• Ocean: Water vapor from the ocean contributes to cloud formation, which can shade the surfaces and create a net cooling effect.

2. Anthropological Causes:

• Greenhouse Gases These gases contribute to warming the Earth. The major man-made sources are:

• • Transportation: The transportation sector generates the largest share of greenhouse gas emissions.
  • Electricity: Generation of electricity through thermal plants also requires combustion of fossil fuels.
  • Agriculture: Methane production from agricultural activities is also a major cause of GHG-based global warming.
  • Data: As per the Emissions Gap Report 2020, over the last decade, China, USA, EU27+UK, and India combined have contributed to 55% of the total GHG emissions.
• Aerosols: Burning of coal and the use of ammonia fertilizers are a major source of sulfate and nitrate aerosols.
• Deforestation: Forests act as carbon sinks; their removal makes the Earth’s carbon sink less effective, leading to more carbon staying in the atmosphere.
• Ocean Carbon Sinks: Gases from offshore oil and other fossil fuels are saturating the oceans with carbon dioxide, reducing their ability to act as carbon sinks.

 

Consequences of Climate Change

1. Ocean Ecosystem

• Change in Ocean Currents: Climate change impacts ocean temperatures and wind patterns, altering oceanic currents.
• Rise in Temperature: Global rise in temperature increases ocean water temperature, impacting fish populations and the upwelling process.
• Melting Ice Caps and Rising Sea Levels: Global warming causes polar ice to melt, leading to rising sea levels.
• Ocean Acidification: Burning fossil fuels increases greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and alters the chemical composition of seawater, making it more acidic.
• Ocean Deoxygenation: A reduction in the oxygen content of the oceans due to anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.
• Coral Reefs: Climate change affects the availability of carbonate ions in ocean water, which impacts coral reefs.
  • Data: Coral reefs generate an estimated $375 billion per year in goods and services.

2. Disasters

• Cyclone Formation: Warmer sea surface temperatures are conducive to cyclone and storm formations.
  • Data: Analyses of cyclonic events over the last 120 years indicate a 26% rise.
• Droughts and Floods: Higher temperatures increase moisture evaporation, leading to droughts. Lands affected by drought are more vulnerable to flooding after rainfall.
• Forest Fires: Hot temperatures and dry conditions increase the likelihood of forest fires.
  • Data: Forest fires in India increased by 125% in the last two years.

3. Economic

• Infrastructure Damage: Globally, more intense hurricanes and downpours could cause billions of dollars in damages to property and infrastructure.
  • Data: In 2017, climate change contributed to extreme weather events causing at least $100 billion in damages.
• Cost to GDP: Future damage estimates range from 2% to 10% or more of global GDP per year.
• Productivity: Climate change causes losses in employee productivity.
  • Data: Productivity could reduce by 2.2% of all working hours, according to the ILO.
• Other Sectors: This includes energy, insurance, tourism, and recreation industries. The aggregate impact of climate change on these sectors remains highly uncertain.
• Declining Crop Yields: Declining crop yields due to prolonged drought put hundreds of thousands of people at risk of starvation.

• Data: Research shows India could experience a 40% decline in agricultural productivity by the 2080s.

• Pest Attacks: Rising temperatures lead to more pest activity, especially in the tropics, causing significant damage to crops.

• Example: The 2020 locust attack in Eastern Africa and the Indian Subcontinent.

• Rain: Warmer atmospheric temperatures result in a more vigorous hydrological cycle, including more extreme rainfall events.
  • Data: An IMD study shows significant decreasing trends in the southwest monsoon from 1989 to 2018 in the Ganga basin states.

• New research shows that monsoon rainfall will increase by 5% with every 1°C rise in global temperatures.

• Soil Fertility and Erosion: The extremes of climate and increased precipitation may lead to greater risks of soil erosion.
• Fisheries: Climate change reduces fish stocks and alters the migratory routes of various species.
• Heat Stress: Global temperature rises will result in significant economic and social losses.

• Data: Accumulated global financial losses due to heat stress are projected to reach USD 2,400 billion by 2030.

• Social Impacts

• Job Losses: Climate change will lead to job losses in all major sectors.
  • Data: India is projected to lose 5.8% of working hours in 2030, equivalent to 34 million full-time jobs.
• Farmer Issues: Crop yields will reduce, leading to lower farmer incomes.
  • Data: Climate change might reduce farm incomes by 20-25% in the medium term, according to the Economic Survey.
• Coastal Communities: Many coastal communities will face displacement and loss of livelihoods due to rising sea levels.
• Environmental Refugees: Island residents may lose their homes and livelihoods as their homes become inundated.
• Food Security: Climate change is expected to significantly impact agricultural conditions and food availability.
• Poverty Rates: With increasing disasters and job losses, more people are likely to fall into poverty and socioeconomic backwardness.
  • Data: By 2030, more than 100 million people could fall back into extreme poverty due to climate change.

• Environmental Impacts

1. Habitat Fragmentation: Wildlife habitats will become more susceptible to disasters, making ecosystems more prone to failure.
2. Migration: Climate change impacts the migratory routes of birds and mammals.
3. Melting Ice: Reduction in sea ice threatens species like penguins and polar bears.

• IPCC Assessment Report Findings

• Climate Hotspots: India is identified as one of the most vulnerable hotspots, with regions at high risk of climate disasters such as flooding, sea-level rise, and heat waves.
• Risks from Urbanization: Urban India faces greater risks, with a projected population of 877 million by 2050, nearly double the 480 million in 2020.
• Wet-Bulb Temperatures: Currently, wet-bulb temperatures in India rarely exceed 31°C. Most of the country experiences maximum wet-bulb temperatures of 25-30°C.

 

Way Forward

1. Energy

• Diversify Energy: India should ensure more non-fossil fuel-based energy sources and diversify the energy basket.
• Promote Hybrid and Electric Vehicles: These non-polluting vehicles will reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport.
• Renewables: Increased political commitment is needed to achieve India’s target of 175 GW installed renewable energy capacity.

2. Agriculture

• Climate Smart Agriculture: Promote sustainable farming practices and tools, using inputs efficiently and effectively to grow more with less.
• Changing Cropping Culture: Revive traditional climate-resilient crops such as millets, tubers, pulses, and cereals.
• Enhance Soil: Enrich soil organic matter through mulching, crop rotation, mixed cropping, and cover crops.
  • Data: Rehabilitating agricultural and degraded soils could remove over 50 gigatons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• Promoting Agroforestry: This can supplement farmers’ incomes, especially in the event of crop failures.
• Farmer Availability: Build adequate markets for farmers to access agro-inputs and sell their surplus produce.
• Local Empowerment: Adaptation and mitigation in agriculture require local responses, but policies must also address global impacts.

3. Economic

• Investments in Clean Energy: Shifting to clean energy and reducing dependence on fossil fuels can help curb global temperature rise.
• Green Building Codes: Adapt buildings to cleaner, more energy-efficient norms to reduce emissions.
• Charging Infrastructure: Invest in charging infrastructure for electric vehicles.
• Disaster Mitigation: Increase investments in disaster-resilient infrastructure and mitigation strategies.
• Coastal Rehabilitation: Marginalized communities affected by rising sea levels need proper rehabilitation and sustainable livelihoods.
• Sustainable Land Use: Switching to sustainable farming methods and strict forestry protection could generate economic benefits of approximately $2 billion per year.
• Setting up Early Warning Systems: Install systems that alert downstream populations about impending disasters.
• Recycling: Encourage circular and efficient use of materials to boost global economic activity and reduce waste and pollution.

4. Social

• Indigenous Knowledge: Utilize the knowledge and techniques of indigenous communities in agriculture and forestry.
• Water and Sanitation: Address water shortages with efficient water use and technological improvements.
  • Data: GNP could fall by up to 6% in 2050 without action.
• Capacity Development: Increase awareness and train communities to implement climate change mitigation strategies.

 

Vulnerability of India

1. Climatological

• Tropical Neighborhood: Islands and southern parts of the peninsula are frequently influenced by tropical weather patterns, including cyclones and low-pressure depressions.
• Monsoon Pattern of Rainfall: Monsoons affect India unevenly, with some areas facing drought while others experience excessive rainfall and flooding.
• Diverse Bio-Geo Spheres: India’s geography spans from Himalayan ecosystems to desert ecosystems, making it highly diverse and vulnerable to a variety of disasters.
• Arid Climates: Temperatures in India have reached up to 50°C, leading to extreme water stress.
  • Example: Chennai experienced a prolonged water crisis due to drought in Tamil Nadu and empty reservoirs.
• Greenhouse Gases: India is the 3rd largest emitter of greenhouse gases, exacerbating pollution levels and disaster risks.
• Seismic Zones: About 59% of India’s landmass is prone to earthquakes, ranging from moderate to very high intensity.

 

2. Social Vulnerability

• High Population Density: Over 80% of Indians live in districts vulnerable to climate risks. States like Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Bihar are particularly at risk of extreme climate events.
• High Poverty Rates: Poverty increases vulnerability to disasters, leaving marginalized communities even more at risk.
• Poor Infrastructure: Indian infrastructure often lacks resilience, leading to frequent building collapses, poor roads, and urban flooding.

• Example: Urban floods.

• Reliance on Agriculture: Heavy reliance on agriculture makes India highly susceptible to disasters like droughts, impacting food security and the economy.

• Data: 68% of India’s cultivable area is vulnerable to droughts, while hilly areas face risks of landslides and avalanches.

• High Costs of Adaptation: Natural disasters cost India a whopping $87 billion in the last year, according to a UN report.

 

CARBON INEQUALITY

Carbon inequality is a direct consequence of decades-long pursuit of unequal and carbon-intensive economic growth. The world’s richest 10% were responsible for over half the carbon emissions added to the atmosphere between 1990 and 2015.

 

Data 1. Comparison of India and the World Basis India Global National Average The average per person emission is about 2.2 tCO₂. Globally, it is over 6.5 tCO₂ in 2021. Bottom 50% About 1 tCO₂ per person. 1.6 tCO₂ per person in 2019. Middle 40% About 2 tCO₂ per person. 6.6 tCO₂ per person in 2019. Top 10% About 8.8 tCO₂ per person. 31 tCO₂ per person in 2019. 2. Carbon Inequality in India The national average per person emission is about 2.2 tCO₂, with the top 10% emitting 8.8 tCO₂ per person in 2019. The bottom 50% emit about 1 tCO₂ per person in 2019. 2010 Statistics: The wealthiest 10% of households emitted 34% of global CO₂, while the poorest 50% accounted for just 15%. 2015 Statistics: The richest 10% were responsible for 49% of emissions, compared to only 7% produced by the poorest 50%. 3. Inequality Between Nations: Developed countries are responsible for 79% of historical carbon emissions. 4. Increase in Carbon Emissions: Between 1990 and 2015, global annual carbon emissions grew by 60%. The total emissions added to the atmosphere since the mid-1800s approximately doubled. 5. Inequality Between and Within Countries: In 1990, 63% of global carbon inequality was due to “between-country” inequality. By 2019, 63% of global carbon inequality was due to “within-country” inequality. (Source: World Inequality Report 2022) 6. Additional Observations: It took 140 years to use 750 Gt of the global carbon budget, but only 25 years (from 1990 to 2015) to use the same amount again, with over half of this linked to consumption by the richest 10%. The per capita consumption footprint of the richest 1% is approximately 35 times higher than the 2030 target and more than 100 times higher than that of the poorest 50%.

Causes of Carbon Inequality

1. Rich Pollute More: By 2030, the richest 1% are projected to have an even greater share of total global emissions than when the Paris Agreement was signed.
2. Burden of Climate Change: Wealth inequality allows the rich to adapt to climate change, while the poor cannot.
   • Example: Wealthier individuals can purchase water during shortages, while the poor cannot.
3. Skewed Access to Resources: Wealthy individuals have greater access to resources, enabling more exploitation and increasing emissions.
   • Example: The rich own more land assets, resulting in more carbon-intensive activities.
4. Lifestyle Issues: The rich consume more and pollute more due to their lifestyle.
   • Example: Vehicle ownership is primarily concentrated among higher economic classes.

 

Impact of Carbon Inequality

1. Social Impact

• Women: Inequality influences occupation and task allocation.
  • Example: Rural women often have lower asset ownership and limited land tenure rights. This forces them to work on marginal lands, exposing them to greater climate-related risks.
• Vulnerable Populations: People living in floodplains or with poorly constructed homes are more susceptible to damage during disasters than those in sturdier housing.
• Health Hazards: Poor individuals are more susceptible to diseases linked to climate change.
  • Example: Diseases like malaria and waterborne illnesses such as diarrhea are more common in disadvantaged communities due to lack of access to clean water.
• Burdens on the Poor: Adaptation costs to climate change disproportionately affect the poor, who already face challenges brought by high-income groups and developed nations.
• Difficulty in Recovery: Inequality limits resources available to disadvantaged groups for recovery and coping measures.

2. Economic Impact

• Difficulty in Recovery: Inequality implies less resources for the disadvantaged groups to undertake coping and recovery measures. 
• Economic Instability: Disadvantaged households in rural areas generally do not own much land and are not significant buyers of food. As a result, they suffer more from food price increases caused by climate hazards.
• Impact of Disasters: Disasters like cyclones and floods have a greater impact in areas affected by carbon inequality and poverty.
• Unequal Growth: The global carbon budget is being rapidly depleted, not to lift humanity to a decent standard of living, but to expand consumption by a minority of the world’s wealthiest people.
• Reduced Demographic Strength: As human resources suffer, the demographic strength of the country loses its potential.

3. Political Impacts

• Policies: Existing climate policies become ineffective and undermine the ability to meet targets set in the Paris Agreement.
• Reduced Bargaining Power: Social and economic inequality reduces the nation’s bargaining power with respect to others globally.

 

4. Environmental Impacts

• Disasters: In 2020, with about 1°C of global heating, climate change fueled deadly cyclones in India and Bangladesh. Huge locust swarms devastated crops across Africa. Unprecedented heatwaves and wildfires affected Australia and the US.

 

Way Forward

• Insurance Penetration: Access to insurance is crucial for coping with and recovering from unexpected damages. However, many disadvantaged groups lack the resources to buy necessary insurance.
• Tracking: A systematic assessment of individual emissions and their impact should be conducted by public authorities to identify beneficiaries and losers of climate policies.
• Common Property: Shared community resources play a vital role in recovery strategies for climate-affected populations.
  • Example: Coastal populations in Bangladesh, with better access to mangrove reserves, coped more effectively during Cyclone Aila.
• Women Empowerment: Women face limited access to common property resources, leading to disproportionate impacts from climate change hazards.
• Focus on Renewability: Scale up investments in low-carbon energy production, infrastructure, transport, and energy efficiency to enable a fair transition and greener choices for lower-income groups.
• Others:
  • Implement wealth taxes, luxury carbon taxes, and progressive carbon pricing to fund universal social services.
  • End tax-free status for aircraft fuel and tax breaks for company cars.
  • Increase public investment in creating decent job guarantees.
  • Reform corporate governance to address short-termism.
  • Set equity-based national targets for reducing carbon emissions.
  • Develop gender-transformative indicators of progress beyond GDP, such as New Zealand’s Wellbeing Budget.
  • Promote dialogue at all levels to ensure the well-being of workers in affected industries, as well as marginalized groups.

 

CARBON TRADING MARKET

Carbon trading is the process of buying and selling permits and credits that allow the permit holder to emit carbon dioxide. It has been a central pillar of the EU’s efforts to slow climate change.

Data Priced Energy: 58.1% of CO₂ emissions from energy use in India were priced in 2021, unchanged since 2018. Taxes: Fuel excise taxes, an implicit form of carbon pricing, covered 58.1% of emissions in 2021, unchanged since 2018. Carbon Rates: Effective carbon rates are highest in the road sector, which accounts for 8.6% of India’s total CO₂ emissions from energy use. Carbon Trade Benefits: India is one of the largest beneficiaries of global carbon trading, claiming about 31% of credits under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Over time, carbon trading could bring $5 to $10 billion to India.

Advantages of the Carbon Trading Market

1. Unlocking Climate Finance: Carbon finance is critical for implementing Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
   • Data: 83% of NDCs intend to use international market mechanisms to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Sustainable Growth: A uniform cap-and-trade carbon market can significantly reduce CO₂ emissions and boost economic growth.
   • Example: A village in Andhra Pradesh sold 147 tonnes of carbon dioxide credits, saving 147 MT of CO₂ by extracting biodiesel from 4,500 Pongamia trees.
3. Carbon Exporter: India is the world’s largest exporter of carbon credits. By exporting “decarbonization,” India could generate $11 trillion over the next 50 years.
   • Data: India’s carbon market is one of the fastest-growing globally, generating 30 million carbon credits—the second-highest volume in the world.
4. Private Sector Collaboration: Voluntary trading in carbon instruments can help businesses meet their greenhouse gas reduction targets.
   • Example: Jindal Vijayanagar Steel announced it would sell $225 million worth of carbon credits within 10 years.
5. Improves Economic Resiliency: Allowing open markets to set carbon prices ensures flexibility and prevents price shocks.
   • Example: In Europe, carbon prices fall during recessions as industrial output and emissions decrease.
6. Incentivizes Investment: An absolute emissions cap and carbon price signal encourage businesses to invest in low-cost methods, such as energy efficiency.
7. Reducing Environmental Costs: Trading within caps minimizes costs, benefiting both businesses and households.
8. Reduction in Carbon Emissions: Evidence shows emissions trading systems drive emissions reductions even after accounting for external factors.
9. Government Revenue: Carbon trading provides additional government revenue that can be reinvested in climate action, lower other taxes, or compensate low-income or adversely impacted groups.
10. Protecting Low-Income Groups: Poor households are the least equipped to adjust to rising carbon costs. Carbon pricing revenues can be used to compensate them.

• Example: In Madhya Pradesh, 95 rural villages could earn at least $300,000 annually through carbon payments by restoring 10,000 hectares of degraded community forests.

 

Challenges/Issues

1. Poor Demand: Low demand and compliance in the current carbon market lead to an oversupply of permits, causing a low price, which undermines motivation for engagement.
2. Double Counting: Concerns include issues related to double-counting of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions.
3. Greenwashing: Companies falsely market their products or services as environmentally friendly, misrepresenting their actual climate-neutral credentials.
4. Legitimacy Issues: Cases of fraud, minimal emissions reduction, and credibility challenges for governments.
5. Developed Nations Issues: Developed countries may appear to reduce emissions while passing the abatement burden to developing nations.
6. Subsidy Issues: Over-compensation for fossil fuel industries has increased the profit margins of the most polluting firms.
7. Limited Participation: For example, in EScerts trading, only designated consumers under the PAT cycle can participate, excluding private enterprises in India that voluntarily commit to emission reductions.

 

Way Forward

• Reforming the Existing System: Examine current trading practices and efficiently control the supply and demand of environmental instruments.
• Regularizing Trading Periods: Example: In the EU-ETS system, allowances are auctioned monthly on the European Energy Exchange (EEX).
• Institutional Reform: Gradually transition to a cap-and-trade system, where specific companies and sectors are allocated fixed emission limits.
• Stakeholder Engagement: Engage with stakeholders to avoid policy misalignment, ensure public support, and promote collaboration between government and market players.
• Proper Implementation: Enforce participants’ obligations rigorously and establish government oversight for the system.

 

INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO CONSERVE THE ENVIRONMENT

UN Conference on Environment and Development or Earth Summit

1. Aim:
   • Examine production patterns, especially toxic components like lead in gasoline and radioactive waste.
   • Promote alternative energy sources to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
   • Emphasize public transportation systems to lower vehicle emissions.
2. Outcomes:
   • Rio Declaration on Environment and Development:
     • The declaration emphasizes linking economic progress with environmental protection.
     • Nations must establish equitable global partnerships between governments, societies, and key sectors to achieve sustainable development.
   • Agenda 21: Agenda 21 is an action plan of the United Nations (UN) related to sustainable development. It was an outcome of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992.
   • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):  CBD is a legally binding convention that recognized for the first time that the conservation of biological diversity is a “common concern of humankind” and an integral part of the development process.
   • UNFCCC: The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at levels that prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-induced) interference with the climate system.

 

UN Convention on Biodiversity (CBD)

• CBD is a legally binding convention recognizing that biological diversity is a “common concern of humankind” and is an integral part of sustainable development.
• Aim:
  • Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity.
  • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources.
• CBD and India: The Biological Diversity Act was enacted in 2002 to implement the CBD with special emphasis on fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of biological resources and associated knowledge.
• Protocols:
  • The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
  • The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-sharing.
  • The Nagoya–Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability and Redress to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.

 

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

• Adoption and Effect: Adopted in 2000 and came into effect in 2003.
• Mandate: Addresses technology development, transfer, benefit-sharing, and biosafety issues.
• Aims:
  • Protect biological diversity from risks posed by living modified organisms (LMOs) from modern biotechnology.
  • Ensure LMOs are handled, packaged, and transported safely between countries.
• Advance Informed Agreement: Requires exporters to seek consent from importing countries before the first shipment of LMOs intended for environmental release.
• Biosafety Clearing House: Established to facilitate the exchange of scientific, technical, environmental, and legal information about LMOs.

 

Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing

1. Mandate: Governs access to genetic resources and ensures fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilization.
2. Adoption and Effect: Adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, at COP 10, and entered into force in October 2014.
3. Aim: Implements one of the three objectives of the CBD: ensuring fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resource utilization while promoting conservation and sustainable biodiversity use.
4. Traditional Knowledge: Addresses traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources, including provisions on access, benefit-sharing, and compliance.
5. Obligations of the Nagoya Protocol: The Nagoya Protocol sets core obligations for access and benefit-sharing for its contracting parties, requiring measures related to:

• Access to genetic resources.
• Benefit-sharing.
• Compliance.

1. Aichi Targets (2011–2020): The Nagoya Protocol under COP-10 outlines five strategic goals:

• Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across governments and society.
• Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
• Strategic Goal C: Improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity.
• Strategic Goal D: Enhance benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.
• Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management, and capacity building.

 

Nagoya–Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol

• The Cartagena Protocol is reinforced by this supplementary protocol, focusing on Liability and Redress.
• Specifies response measures in case of damage to biodiversity caused by living modified organisms (LMOs).
• Competent authorities must require the LMO operator to take response measures or implement the measures themselves and recover incurred costs from the operator.

 

Ramsar Convention for Wetlands

1. Adoption: Signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, and came into effect in 1975.
2. Mandate: Promote the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional, and national actions, as well as international cooperation.
3. Recognition: Adding a site to the Ramsar List confers international prestige and demonstrates the government’s commitment.
4. Montreux Record: A register of Ramsar wetlands where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur due to technological developments, pollution, or human interference.
   • India:
     • Keoladeo National Park, Rajasthan (1990).
     • Loktak Lake, Manipur (1993).
5. India and Ramsar: India has 42 sites designated as Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Sites), with the largest being the Sundarbans.

 

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

1. Adoption and Effect: Signed in 2001 and became effective in May 2004.
2. Aim: Eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that:
   • Persist in the environment.
   • Bioaccumulate through the food web.
   • Pose risks to human health and the environment.
3. Initial Categories:
   • Pesticides: Includes aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphene.
   • Industrial Chemicals: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
   • By-products: Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF).
4. India: The Environment Ministry adopted the “Regulation of Persistent Organic Pollutants Rules” to mitigate health risks. In 2020, India banned seven persistent organic pollutants listed under the Stockholm Convention.

 

Basel Convention

On the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal

1. Adoption and Effect: Opened for signature in 1989 and entered into force on May 5, 1992.
2. Aim: To reduce the movement of hazardous waste between countries and prevent the transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries.
3. Annexes:
   • Annex I: Lists hazardous wastes subject to control procedures under the Convention.
   • Annex II: Identifies “other wastes,” primarily referring to household wastes.
4. Plastic Waste: In 2019, Basel Convention parties agreed to an amendment requiring exporting countries to obtain prior informed consents (PICs) from importing countries for contaminated, mixed, or unrecyclable plastic waste.
5. India:
   • The Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, are based on the Basel Convention.

 

Rotterdam Convention

1. Adoption and Effect: Adopted in 1998 in Rotterdam, Netherlands, and entered into force in 2004.
2. Aim:
   • Operates the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for hazardous chemicals and pesticides in international trade.
   • Promotes shared responsibility and cooperative efforts in the trade of dangerous chemicals.
3. Prior Informed Consent: Requires importing parties to formally obtain and disseminate decisions on future shipments of listed chemicals.
4. Annex III Chemicals: Includes pesticides and industrial chemicals that are banned or severely restricted for health or environmental reasons by at least two parties.

 

Minamata Convention

1. Adoption and Effect: Opened for signature in 2013 and entered into force in 2017.
2. Aim: Protects human health and the environment from mercury emissions and releases.
3. Reduction and Elimination: Seeks to eliminate mercury use in products and control mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants and industrial processes.
4. India: Approved the ratification of the Minamata Convention, with provisions to continue using mercury-based products and processes until 2025.

 

Vienna Convention

1. Adoption and Effect: Adopted in 1985 and entered into force in 1988.
2. Aim:
   • Promotes cooperation on the effects of human activities on the ozone layer.
   • Advocates for legislative or administrative measures against activities harmful to the ozone layer.
3. Protocol: Provides the framework necessary to create regulatory measures, implemented through the Montreal Protocol.

 

Montreal Protocol

1. Adoption and Effect: Opened for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989.

1. Aim: Designed to stop the production and import of ozone-depleting substances (ODS) and reduce their concentration in the atmosphere to protect the Earth’s ozone layer.
2. Differentiated Responsibilities: Developing and developed countries have equal but differentiated responsibilities, with time-bound, binding, and measurable commitments.
3. Multilateral Fund: Established in 1991 to help developing countries comply with the provisions of the Protocol.
4. Success:
   • CFCs: Successfully reduced emissions of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere.
   • Ozone-Depleting Substances: Phased out 98% of ODS compared to 1990 levels.
   • Reduced Greenhouse Gases: Helped reduce greenhouse gas emissions by the equivalent of 135 gigatons of CO₂ from 1990 to 2010 (11 gigatons per year).
5. India and Montreal Protocol:
   • Plan: India developed a detailed country program for the phase-out of ODS in 1993.
   • Cooling Action Plan: India is the first nation to implement a cooling action plan under the Montreal Protocol.
   • Duty Exemption: Full exemption from Customs and Central Excise Duties for goods designed exclusively for non-ODS technologies.
   • Ozone Cell: Established by the Ministry of Environment to implement the Protocol.

 

Kigali Agreement

1. Adoption and Effect: Signed in 2016 and entered into force in 2019.
2. Aim: To gradually reduce the consumption and production of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which, though not harmful to the ozone layer, have a high potential to cause global warming.
3. Phase-Out Goals:
   • First Group: Industrialized countries committed to reducing HFC use by 45% by 2024 and by 85% by 2036 (compared to 2011–2013 levels).
   • Second Group: Includes China and Brazil, committed to reducing HFC use by 80% by 2045.
   • Third Group: Includes India and other nations, with a deadline of 2047 to phase out HFCs.
4. India: Voluntarily stopped the production of HFC-23, a byproduct of refrigerant use.

 

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

1. Adoption and Effect: Established in 1994 as the sole legally binding international agreement linking environmental protection to sustainable land management.
2. Aim: Encourages a bottom-up approach with local community participation to combat desertification and land degradation.
3. Land Degradation: Recognizes land degradation as a critical factor affecting vulnerable people and ecosystems globally.
4. India: Hosted the 14th Conference of Parties (COP) in 2019 in Delhi. Key initiatives include:
   • Gender and health programs.
   • Ecosystem restoration.
   • Peace Forest Initiative.
   • Recovery of 5 million hectares of degraded land.

 

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

1. Adoption and Effect: Entered into force in July 1975. Currently, 183 parties, including countries and regional economic integration organizations, are signatories.
2. Aim: Ensures that international trade in plants and animals does not threaten their survival in the wild.
   • Trade: All import, export, re-export, and introduction of species covered by the Convention require authorization through a licensing system.
   • Financial Support: Secures resources for the implementation of the Convention.
   • Conservation: Reduces biodiversity loss by ensuring coherence and mutual support with other multilateral instruments.
3. Appendices:
   • Appendix I: Includes species threatened with extinction, providing the highest level of protection, including restrictions on commercial trade.
   • Appendix II: Includes species not currently threatened with extinction but likely to be so without trade controls.
   • Appendix III: Includes species for which a range country has sought assistance from other parties in controlling international trade.
4. India and CITES: India has proposed transferring species like the smooth-coated otters, small-clawed otters, and the Indian Star Tortoise from Appendix II to Appendix I for increased protection.

 

NATIONAL EFFORTS TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY/ENVIRONMENT

Constitutional Provisions:

1. Fundamental Rights: Article 21 guarantees the fundamental right to life, which includes the right to a healthy environment free from danger of disease or infection.
2. Directive Principles of State Policy: Article 48-A mandates the state to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.
3. Fundamental Duties: Article 51-A(g) states: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.”
4. 73rd Amendment Act: Empowers Panchayats at the local level to undertake measures such as soil conservation, water management, forestry, and environmental protection.

 

Legislative Efforts

1. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981:

• Aim: Prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution.
• Defined Air Pollution: Includes any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance that causes harm to the environment or makes air unbreathable.
• Control Boards: Establishes Central and State Pollution Control Boards (CPCB) to implement the Act.

2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and 1988 Amendment

• Aim: To prevent and control water pollution and to maintain or restore the wholesomeness of water in the country.
• Control Authorities: Vests regulatory authority in State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB) to establish and enforce effluent standards for factories.
• Testing: Grants power to SPCB and CPCB to test equipment and collect samples for analysis.
• Shutting Down Plants: The 1988 amendment empowered SPCB and CPCB to shut down defaulting industrial plants.
• Water Cess: Introduced in 1977 to levy and collect charges on water consumption by industries for specific types of operations.

3. Environmental Protection Act, 1986

• Aim: An “umbrella” legislation providing a framework for the Central Government to coordinate various central and state authorities under previous laws like the Water Act and Air Act.
• Prohibition: Prohibits the use of hazardous materials without prior permission from the Central Government.
• Safety Protocols: Empowers the government to prescribe safety measures and remedies to prevent or address environmental accidents.
• Research: Assigns responsibility to the Central Government for funding and conducting environmental pollution research.
• Powers of Entry and Inspection: Grants authorities the right to enter premises to inspect, examine industrial plans, records, or documents.
• Bar of Jurisdiction: Prohibits courts from taking up cases against officials performing their duty under this Act.
• Penalties: Imposes imprisonment of up to 5 years or fines for violations.

4. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

• Aim: Protects listed species of animals, birds, and plants and establishes a network of ecologically significant protected areas.
• Schedules: Includes 6 schedules, detailing the protection level for listed species.
• Protected Areas: Provides for setting up protected areas like National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
• National Board for Wildlife: Chaired by the Prime Minister, advises the Central Government on wildlife conservation issues.
• National Tiger Conservation Authority: Tasked with conservation and protection of tigers.
• Ban on Hunting: Prohibits hunting animals listed in the first three schedules, with penalties for violations.

5. National Green Tribunal (NGT)

• Aim: Established under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010, for the speedy resolution of environmental disputes.
• Green Mandate: Handles cases with significant environmental impact.
• Dispute Resolution: Provides a specialized platform for resolving environmental and related disputes.

 

6. Biological Diversity Act, 2002

• Aim: Conserves biological resources, promotes sustainable use, and enables fair and equitable sharing of benefits from biological resources. Helps fulfill the objectives of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.
• Three-Tier Structure: National Biodiversity Authority at the center, with state and local authorities regulating access to biological resources.
• Prior Approval: Mandatory approval by the National Biodiversity Authority is required for research, commercial utilization, or transfer of biological resources.

7. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

• Prohibits Deforestation: Prevents the felling of forests for any “non-forestry” purpose without prior approval from the Central Government.
• Coverage: The Supreme Court expanded the act’s scope to include all areas meeting the dictionary definition of a forest, beyond just those specifically notified.
• Local Consent: Requires the consent of local forest rights-holders and wildlife authorities for clearance.

 

Government Bodies

1. National Board for Wildlife:
   • Chaired by the Prime Minister and established under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
   • Advises the Central Government on policies and measures for wildlife conservation and development.
2. Wildlife Trust of India (WTI):
   • Founded in 1998 and headquartered in Noida, it works for wildlife conservation and animal welfare.
   • Achievements include recovering endangered species populations, species translocation, and mitigating human-animal conflicts.
3. Wildlife Institute of India (WII):
   • Established in 1982, this autonomous institute conducts research on biodiversity, endangered species, wildlife management, habitat ecology, and climate change.
4. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA):
   • Implementing authority of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
   • Provides advice to the government on sustainable use and conservation of biological resources and ensures equitable benefit sharing.
5. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
   • Established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
   • Promotes the cleanliness of water bodies and ensures air pollution control across states.
6. Animal Welfare Board of India:
   • It was established in 1962 under Section 4 of The Prevention of Cruelty of Animals Act, 1960.
   • To advise the Government on Animal Welfare Laws and promote animal welfare in the country. 
7. National Tiger Conservation Authority
   • Established: Formed in 2005 under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. 
   • Functions: Provides information on protection measures, including future conservation plans. Tracks tiger population and their natural prey species. Reports incidents such as poaching and other illegal activities.

 

Schemes and Initiatives

1. Air Pollution

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched under the Central Sector “Control of Pollution” Scheme. A long-term, time-bound, national-level strategy to combat air pollution.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): Notified on January 12, 2017. Targets the prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution in Delhi and NCR.
• National Air Quality Index (NAQI): A tool that simplifies air quality data into six categories: good, satisfactory, moderate, poor, very poor, and severe. Uses color codes to indicate the severity of pollution in specific areas.
• Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR: Oversees air pollution and air quality management in the National Capital Region, superseding existing bodies.

2. Water Pollution

• Namami Gange: Aims to reduce pollution in the Ganga river by diverting sewage and wastewater.
• National Ganga River Basin Authority: A body tasked with financing, planning, and implementing measures to protect the Ganges’ drainage basin from pollution.
• Sewage Management: Involves action plans by State Governments to restore water quality and manage sewage in aquatic resources.
• National Wetland Conservation Programme: Focuses on conserving and managing identified lakes and wetlands across the country.
• Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016: Seeks to ensure the safe disposal and proper treatment of solid waste.

3. Wildlife Protection

• Project Tiger (1973): Ensures the survival of Bengal tigers in their natural habitats and preserves biologically significant areas.
• SECURE Himalayas: Focuses on the conservation of snow leopards and other endangered species in the Himalayas.
• Asiatic Lion Conservation Project: Includes scientific management and community involvement to control diseases affecting lions.
• IRV2020 (Indian Rhino Vision 2020): Launched in 2005 to increase the population of one-horned rhinos in Assam to 3,000 by 2020.
• National Afforestation Programme: Aims for ecological restoration of degraded forests through community participation, improving livelihoods of forest-fringe communities.
• National Mission for a Green India: Part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change, focused on protecting, restoring, and enhancing India’s forest cover.
• Nagar Van Udyan Scheme: Aims to develop at least one City Forest in each city with a Municipal Corporation to promote a healthy environment.

4. Renewable Energy

• PM KUSUM Scheme: Aims to help farmers install solar pumps and grid-connected solar power plants to promote renewable energy in the agricultural sector.
• PLI Scheme: Provides financial incentives to boost domestic manufacturing and attract investments in the electronics value chain, including semiconductor packaging.
• Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects: Proposed to establish at least 25 Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects.
• Rooftop Scheme: Under the rooftop scheme by SECI, 200 MW of projects have been allocated, with 45 MW already commissioned. 
• SATAT Scheme: Stands for Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation. Aims to set up compressed biogas production plants for automotive fuel markets.

5. Urban Wastes

• Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: Addresses issues of plastic waste and pollution in the country.
• E-Waste Rules, 2016: Holds producers responsible for e-waste collection and recycling.
• Hazardous Waste Management Rules, 2016: Introduced to differentiate between hazardous and non-hazardous waste.
• Construction and Demolition Waste Rules, 2016: Ensures proper management of construction waste and minimizes environmental impact.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Promotes cleanliness and resource recovery through recycling and employment generation.

6. Others

• Island Protection Zones, 2011: Provides livelihood security to fishing communities, tribals, and coastal residents.
• Coastal Regulatory Zones, 2011: Regulates human activity in coastal and marine regions.
• National Forest Policy, 1988: Aims to ensure environmental stability and maintain ecological balance.

 

NATIONAL EFFORTS FOR SPECIES CONSERVATION

Bengal Tiger

1. Data:
   • IUCN Status: Endangered.
   • Count: 2,967 tigers (4th Tiger Census, 2018).
   • Range: India hosts 75% of the global tiger population.
2. National Initiatives:
   • Project Tiger (1973): Ensures viable Bengal tiger populations in natural habitats, protecting them from extinction.
   • National Tiger Conservation Authority: Established in 2005 as a statutory body to oversee tiger conservation and monitor related issues.
   • Global Tiger Forum: Established in 1993 in New Delhi, focusing on tiger policies and conservation programs.
   • M-STrIPES: Uses GPS for geotagging and surveying to ensure accurate conservation data.
   • CaTRAT: Automates segregation of camera trap photographs by species.
3. Importance:
   • Apex Predators: Maintains ecological balance by controlling prey populations.
   • National Pride: Tigers are India’s national animal and a global symbol of wildlife conservation.
   • Seed Dispersal: Tigers contribute to seed dispersal by traveling long distances, aiding forest regeneration.
   • Habitat Fragmentation: Large-scale habitat destruction and low prey populations are the major long-term threats to the existence of the dwindling tiger population.
   • Endemism: Indian Tiger genetic pool is not as diverse due to origin in common ancestors and may not be sustainable in the long run.
   • Man-Animal Conflict: Occasionally, tigers are killed due to confrontation with human activities.

 

Asian Elephant

1. Data:
   • IUCN Status: Endangered.
   • Count: 27,785–31,368 in India (2018–19).
   • Range: 55% of the global population of Asian Elephants is in India.
2. National Initiatives:
   • Project Elephant: Launched in 1992 to provide financial and technical support for the conservation of free-ranging wild Asian Elephants.
   • Elephant Task Force Report, 2010: Helped identify approximately 100 elephant corridors in India.
   • Railways: The Ministry of Railways has been requested to regulate train speeds in vulnerable sections, especially between sunset and sunrise.
3. Importance:
   • Landscape Architects: Elephants create clearings in forests, preventing the overgrowth of specific plant species.
   • Nutrition: Elephant dung provides nourishment for plants and animals.
   • Food Chain: Tigers and other apex predators sometimes hunt young elephants; elephant carcasses provide food for scavengers.
   • Umbrella Effect: Protecting elephants ensures suitable habitats for various other plant and animal species.
4. Challenges/Causes of Decline:
   • Migratory Routes: Roads and highway construction have disrupted elephant migration.
   • Ivory Poaching: High demand for ivory has led to illegal poaching.
   • Crop Damage: Elephants often damage crops, leading to conflict with humans.
   • Habitat Destruction: Loss of natural habitats forces elephants into human settlements, increasing conflicts.

 

Leopards and Snow Leopards

1. Leopards:
   • IUCN Status: Vulnerable.
   • Count: India has 12,852 leopards (2018).
   • Increase: A 60% rise compared to the 2014 estimate.
2. Snow Leopards:
   • IUCN Status: Vulnerable.
   • Count: Approximately 450–500 individuals in India.
   • Area: India accounts for 5% of the global snow leopard range.

 

National Initiatives

1. Leopard
   • Project Tiger: Leopards are among the other cat species and animals that have benefited under the Tiger Project umbrella.
   • Ministerial Report: Status of Leopards in India, 2018 report was recently released by the Ministry for Environmental, Forest and Climate Change.
   • Project Leopard: Rajasthan was the first state to enact a project dedicated to leopard conservation.
2. Snow Leopard
   • SECURE Himalayas: Focuses on conserving snow leopards and other endangered species and their habitats in the Himalayas.
   • Project Snow Leopard (PSL): Promotes an inclusive, participatory approach to conservation involving local communities.
   • National Survey: The first National Snow Leopard Survey has been developed with scientific input and collaboration among Snow Leopard States.

 

1. Importance
   • Apex Predator: Helps regulate the food chain and controls prey populations.
   • Seed Dispersal: Travels long distances, aiding in seed dispersion and maintaining ecosystem balance.
2. Challenges/Causes of Decline
   • Man-Animal Conflict: Leopards frequently enter villages searching for food.
   • Habitat Encroachment: Urban construction increasingly encroaches on leopard habitats.
   • Elusiveness: Snow leopards operate in remote, high-altitude areas, making them challenging to track.

 

Asiatic Lions

1. Data

• IUCN Status: Endangered.
• Count: 674 Asiatic lions (2020 Census).
• Range: Over 90% of Asiatic lions are in India.
• Rise: Population increased by 29% in the last five years.

2. National Initiatives

• Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project: Aimed to find alternative habitats for reintroducing Asiatic lions in the early 1990s.
• Asiatic Lion Conservation Project: Focuses on scientific management and community involvement, with coordination among multiple agencies for disease control.

3. Importance

• Apex Predators: Regulates the food chain by controlling prey species.
• Cultural Significance: Integral to the Maldhari tribe’s culture, promoting coexistence.
• National Pride: Found mainly in Gujarat, Asiatic lions are considered a flagship species of India.

4. Challenges/Causes of Decline

• Distribution: Confined to a single state, making them vulnerable to disasters and disease.
• Diseases: Cases of deaths from canine distemper and suspected COVID-19 have been reported.
• Poaching: Habitat fragmentation and poaching remain significant threats.
• Inbreeding: High rates of inbreeding reduce genetic diversity, making them susceptible to epidemics.

Rhino

1. Data

• IUCN Status: Vulnerable.
• Count: 3,600 in 2020.
• Range: 85% of the global Indian rhinoceros population is in Assam.

2. National Initiatives

• IRV2020 (Indian Rhino Vision 2020): Launched in 2005 to attain a population of at least 3,000 greater one-horned rhinos in Assam by 2020.
• National Rhino Conservation Strategy: Calls for active engagement between India and Nepal to conserve the Greater one-horned rhinoceros.
• DNA Database: A project by the Ministry of Environment to create DNA profiles of all rhinos in the country.
• Translocation: Began with the Manas National Park by translocating two rhinos from Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary.
• Importance:

• Landscape Shapers: As grazers, rhinos consume large amounts of vegetation, shaping landscapes.
• Flagship Species: Rhinos are a flagship species of Assam and India.

• Challenges/Causes of Decline:
  • Highly Localized: 67% of the global Indian rhino population resides in a single park—Kaziranga.
  • Disasters: Assam is prone to natural disasters, impacting rhino habitats.
  • Poaching: Rhino horns are among the most poached animal products globally, posing a constant threat.

 

Gangetic Dolphin

1. Data:
   • IUCN Status: Endangered.
   • Count: 1,200–1,800 (2019 Census).
   • Range: Mostly in India and Bangladesh.

 

1. National Initiatives:
   • National Mission for Clean Ganga: Includes provisions for dolphin protection and conservation.
   • Project Dolphin: Proposed conservation program modeled on Project Tiger (2020).
   • Dolphin Observatory: Bihar is establishing India’s first dolphin observatory at Vikramshila.
   • Conservation Action Plan (2010–2020): Identifies threats like river traffic, irrigation canals, and prey-base depletion.
   • National Aquatic Animal: Declared during the first meeting of the National Ganga River Basin Authority in 2009.
   • National Dolphin Day: October 5 is celebrated as National Ganga River Dolphin Day.
2. Importance:
   • National Aquatic Animal: Symbol of India.
   • Food Chain: Plays a critical role in the aquatic food chain.
   • River Health: Indicator of river ecosystem health.
3. Challenges/Causes of Decline:
   • Fishing Nets: Dolphins are accidentally caught in fishing nets and injured or killed.
   • Pollution: Rising pollution in the Ganges affects their survival.
   • Habitat Fragmentation: Construction of dams and barrages disrupts their habitats.

 

Olive Ridley Turtles

1. Data:
   • IUCN Status: Vulnerable.
   • Count: Approximately 800,000 nesting females.
   • Range in India: Coasts of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
2. National Initiatives:
   • Rushikulya Sea Turtle Protection Committee: Based in Odisha, it aims to protect turtle breeding grounds and ensure sustainable fishing.
   • Orissa Marine Resources Conservation Consortium: Works proactively to conserve Olive Ridley Turtles by forming monitoring units at nesting sites and conducting regular beach patrols.
   • Operation Kachhapa: Launched in September 1998 to unite all stakeholders in turtle conservation.
   • Turtle Sanctuary: Gahirmatha was declared a turtle sanctuary in 1997, serving as the major breeding ground.

1. Importance:
   • Marine Ecosystem: Vital to marine ecosystems and food chains.
   • Flagship Species: Smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles globally.
2. Challenges/Causes of Decline:
   • Fishing: Frequently caught in fishing nets and poached for meat.
   • Pollution: Marine pollution disrupts life cycles.
   • Plastic Waste: Debris from plastics, discarded fishing nets, and garbage harm turtles.

 

Vultures

1. Data:
   • IUCN Status: Critically Endangered (Oriental White-backed Vulture, Long-billed Vulture, Slender-billed Vulture, and Red-headed Vulture).
   • Population Decline: 99% decline in population.
2. National Initiatives:
   • Vulture Action Plan: Released in 2006 by MoEFCC with the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI), banning diclofenac veterinary use.
   • Vulture Restaurants: Established in various states for proper feeding and conservation.
   • Breeding Programme: Supported by Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) to rear young vultures.
   • Vulture Safe Zone Programme: Created at eight locations to protect existing populations and provide safe cattle carcasses.
3. Importance:
   • Scavengers: Prevent disease by feeding on animal carcasses.
   • Food Chain: Crucial to the detritus food chain and decomposition.
   • Umbrella Species: Supports habitats for other decomposers.
4. Challenges/Causes of Decline:
   • Diclofenac Use: Remains prevalent in agriculture, posing extinction risks.
   • Near Extinction: Limited genetic diversity among remaining species.
   • Electrocution: Flocks near power towers are at risk.

 

Great Indian Bustard

1. Data:
   • IUCN Status: Critically Endangered.
   • Count: 150–170 individuals.
   • Range: 90% population concentrated in the Desert National Park.
2. National Initiatives:
   • Great Indian Bustard Project: Launched by the Rajasthan government to identify and fence off breeding grounds.
   • Underground Power Lines: The Supreme Court of India directed that power lines in Great Indian Bustard (GIB) landscapes should be placed underground.
   • Resident Bustard Recovery Programme: Implemented by WWF-India to raise awareness and promote conservation.

1. Importance:
   • Flagship Species: The GIB is the state bird of Rajasthan and a flagship species for the state.
2. Challenges/Causes of Decline:
   • Hunting: Hunting remains a major threat, especially in Pakistan.
   • Power Lines: Collisions with high-tension electric wires have reduced numbers.
   • Habitat Loss: Agricultural expansion and mechanized farming cause habitat loss and alteration.

 

INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE AND CLIMATE FINANCE

UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)

• Adoption and Effect: Negotiated and signed at the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992; came into effect in 1995.
• Aim: Stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at levels that prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
• Conference of Parties (COP): Yearly meetings under the UNFCCC to assess progress on climate change and agreements, including the Paris Agreement.
• Paris Agreement: Mobilizes funds for transitioning economies to cleaner fuels and phasing down greenhouse gas emissions.
• India’s Pledge: Reduce the emission intensity of its GDP (GHG emissions per unit GDP) by 33–35% from 2005 levels by 2030.

 

Kyoto Protocol

1. Adoption and Effect: Adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in December 1997; came into effect on February 16, 2005.
2. Aim: Control emissions of key anthropogenic greenhouse gases and strengthen the framework of the UNFCCC.
3. Emission Reduction Commitments: Legally binding reduction targets for developed country parties.
4. Flexible Market Mechanisms:
   • Emissions Trading: Allows nations to trade emissions permits.
   • Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Enables developed countries to implement emission-reduction projects in developing countries.
5. Doha Amendment: The first commitment period ended in 2012, followed by the second under the Doha Amendment (2013–20), legally binding emissions reduction for participating economies.
6. India’s Role: Agreed to the second amendment but criticized developed nations for insufficient offset and trading measures in developing countries.

 

Paris Agreement

1. Adoption and Effect: Proposed at COP 21 of the UNFCCC and came into effect in 2016 with 195 signatories.
2. Aim: Substantially reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Limit the global temperature increase to 2°C above pre-industrial levels while pursuing efforts to cap the increase at 1.5°C.
3. Nationally Determined Goals (NDCs): Parties are required to present their best efforts through NDCs and strengthen these efforts every five years.
4. Climate Finance: At the Paris Conference in 2015, developed countries reaffirmed their commitment to mobilize $100 billion annually for climate finance by 2020.
5. Global Stocktake: Facilitates periodic review of progress every five years to increase ambition.
6. India’s Role: India’s NDCs under the Paris Agreement are 2°C-compliant. The country is likely to meet or exceed its commitments, as noted in the 2020 Emissions Gap Report.

REDD and REDD+

1. Adoption: Established in 2008 by FAO, UNDP, and UNEP following a resolution at COP 13 in Bali.
2. Aim: Encourage developing countries to mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions through slowing, halting, and reversing forest loss and degradation.
3. Incentives: Countries reducing emissions and sustainably managing forests are entitled to funds for conservation, forest management, and enhancing forest carbon stocks.
4. India’s Role: Presented the Green India Mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change as part of its commitments to REDD+.

 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

1. Established: Founded in 1988 by UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
2. Aim: Provide governments with scientific information to develop climate policies.
3. Scientific Study: Reviews and assesses scientific and socio-economic information relevant to climate change.
4. Assessment Reports: Periodically releases comprehensive reports relevant to understanding human impacts on climate.
5. National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme: Provides methods for estimating greenhouse gas emissions and removals globally.

 

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

1. Establishment: Created during the 1992 Earth Summit to tackle global environmental problems.
2. Aim: An international funding mechanism addressing critical environmental issues, including climate change, biodiversity, and ozone depletion.

 

International Solar Alliance

1. Establishment: Launched by PM Modi at the India-Africa Summit and during the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris.
2. Aim: To significantly decrease the cost of solar energy, enabling its widespread deployment in solar-rich countries located between the Tropics.
3. India’s Role:
   • India is a founder member.
   • India is one of the largest markets, with its policy to build 100 GW sending positive signals to developers and financiers.
   • Committed to achieving an operational solar power capacity of 100 GW by March 2022.

 

CLIMATE FINANCE

Climate Finance refers to local, national, or transnational financing (public, private, or alternative) that supports mitigation and adaptation actions addressing climate change.

Data Composition: Adaptation: Grew by 29% annually, reaching USD 16.8 billion in 2018. Mitigation: Increased by 15% annually, totaling USD 55 billion in 2018. Sectoral Share: Energy (34%), transport and storage (14%), agriculture, forestry, and fishing (9%), water and sanitation (7%). Geographical Breakdown: Asia received the largest share (43%) of climate finance, followed by Africa (25%) and the Americas (17%).

International Climate Funds

• Strategic Climate Fund: Supports vulnerable countries in adapting to climate change, promoting resilience, and designing programs to prevent deforestation.
• Adaptation Fund: A financial instrument under the Kyoto Protocol established to fund adaptation projects in developing countries.
• Green Climate Fund:Operates under the UNFCCC to assist developing countries with mitigation and adaptation practices for combating climate change.
• BioCarbon Fund: Promotes reduced greenhouse gas emissions and increased sequestration through better land management and incentivized rewards, including REDD+ initiatives.
• Clean Technology Fund: Contributed $8 billion from 14 donor countries for scaling up mitigation and adaptation in developing and middle-income nations.
• Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF): Established under the UNFCCC in 2001 to fund projects related to adaptation, technology transfer, and capacity building in agriculture, forestry, energy, and more.
• Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF): Assists the Least Developed Countries (LDCs) in preparing and implementing national adaptation programs of action (NAPAs).

 

Importance of Climate Finance

• Mitigation: Supports efforts to mitigate the impacts of climate change on economies and people.
• Global Transitions: Necessary to transition from fossil fuel-based economies to renewable infrastructure.
  • Data: Every $1 invested in resilient infrastructure generates $4 in benefits.
• Adaptability: Facilitates the adoption of clean energy systems, which require significant time and resources.
• Limit Temperature Rise: Crucial for keeping the global temperature below 1.5°C.
• Developing Nations: Developing countries require climate finance as they rely on conventional fuels and lack adequate domestic funding for transitions.
• Weak Domestic Mobilization: Developing nations face challenges in securing long-term debt due to asset-liability mismatches.
• Social Impact:
  • Livelihoods: Ensures transitions do not disrupt workers dependent on conventional infrastructure.
  • Welfare: Addresses climate requirements without compromising social security obligations.

 

Challenges/Issues

1. Vague Definitions: Climate finance definitions vary and are inconsistent with UNFCCC provisions.
2. Inadequate Funds: The $100 billion promised annually under the Paris Agreement is insufficient for global needs.
   • Data: Estimates suggest $300 billion to $50 trillion is required to address global climate change in the next two decades.
3. Developed World Hesitancy: Developed nations are reluctant to shoulder the financial burden.
   • Data: By 2017, only 12% of financial obligations had been met.
4. Mitigation Bias: Majority of funds are allocated to mitigation rather than adaptation.
   • Data: 70% of climate finance is directed towards mitigation.
5. Poor Accounting: Highlights the need for a transparent framework to track climate finance.
6. More Priority to the Energy Sector: Sectors like agriculture, forestry, and oceans receive limited funding.
7. Corruption: Instances of mismanagement and diversion of climate funds exist, especially in developing nations.
8. Consensus Issues: Lack of agreement among developed nations on how to allocate climate finance.
9. Multiplicity of Funds: Numerous similar funds create complexity and inefficiencies.
10. Access to Funds: Funding often comes with restrictive conditions, unfavorable to developing nations.

1. Western Monopoly: Terms of climate finance are dominated by Western nations, leaving limited input from developing countries.

 

Way Forward

• Scale up Investments: Increase the pace of fund mobilization and address issues related to financing burdens.
• Private-Public Collaboration: Both sectors must be equally involved, avoiding excessive reliance on the private sector.
• Healthy Accounting Practices: Implement robust monitoring, reporting, and verification systems tailored to various financing forms for donors and recipients.
• Flexibilities to Developing Nations: Provide flexibility, incentives, and support for developing nations to implement mitigation programs aligned with their development goals.
• Global Registry on Climate Finance: Create a registry to monitor and ensure compliance with funding commitments and financed actions.
• End Polluting Subsidies: Phase out subsidies for fossil fuel production and consumption, which amounted to $600 billion globally in 2012.
• Financial Transparency: Enhance transparency in both developed and developing countries to assess if commitments are being met effectively.
• Clarity on Sources of Finance: Clearly identify sources of finance, how funds will be raised, and the instruments for allocation.
• Targeting: Improve targeting of climate finance with a focus on continuous improvement by learning what works effectively.

 

NATIONAL EFFORTS TO COMBAT CLIMATE CHANGE AND INDIA’S PERFORMANCE

Major Initiatives

1. National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008:

• Aim: Raise awareness among public representatives, government agencies, scientists, industries, and communities about climate change threats and countermeasures.
• Components:
  • National Solar Mission: Establish policies for deploying 20,000 MW of solar power and support indigenous production with a focus on solar thermal technology.
  • National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Achieve estimated annual fuel savings of 23 million tonnes of oil-equivalent and avoid capacity additions of over 19,000 MW.
  • National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: Enhance energy efficiency in buildings, manage solid and liquid waste, and promote public transport.
  • National Water Mission: Conserve water, reduce wastage, and ensure equitable distribution through integrated water resource management.
  • National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: Address climate change impacts on Himalayan glaciers, biodiversity, and traditional livelihoods.
  • National Mission for a Green India: Combine adaptation and mitigation measures to enhance carbon sinks in sustainably managed forests and ecosystems.
  • National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: Transform agriculture into an ecologically sustainable and climate-resilient production system while ensuring food security and equitable access to resources.
  • National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: Identify challenges and responses to climate change through research and technology development while promoting focused research on climate change aspects.

2. State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC)

• Aim: Advocate a participatory approach to ensure states have ownership over the process and final plan.
• Composition:
  • Includes both adaptation and mitigation measures.
  • Adaptation has been identified as a more crucial component.

3. National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF)

• Aim: Support clean energy initiatives and fund research in clean energy development.
• Funding: Corpus built by levying a cess of ₹50 (later increased to ₹100 in 2014) per tonne of coal produced domestically or imported. Assists activities to mitigate adverse climate effects in vulnerable areas.
• Renewables: Expanded to support eligible projects under programs like “Grid Interactive and Distributive Renewable Power” and “Research in Renewable Energy.”

4. National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC)

• Aim: Support concrete adaptation activities to mitigate adverse climate effects.
• Establishment: Set up as a Central Sector Scheme in 2015-16.

 

5. Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA)

• Aim: A network of scientists to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change.
• Research: Designed as a network-based scientific program to analyze drivers and implications of climate change.
• 4×4 Report: Assesses climate change impacts by 2030 on key sectors (Agriculture, Water, Health, Ecosystems) across four regions (Himalayan, North-East, Western Ghats, Coastal plains).

6. National Carbonaceous Aerosols Programme

• Objective: Enhance understanding of aerosol emissions from regional sources. Analyze seasonal and long-term atmospheric abundance.

7. Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA)

• Aim: Ensure efficient resource utilization, enhanced energy efficiency, and improved quality of life in buildings.
• Purpose: Provides benchmarks to evaluate building performance across climatic zones.
• Reduction in Emissions: GRIHA will benefit the community at large with the improvement in the environment by reducing GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions, reducing energy consumption, and the stress on natural resources.

8. Energy Conservation Building Code

• Aim: Launched in 2007, it addresses the design of new, large commercial buildings to optimize the buildings’ energy demand based on their location in different climatic zones. This ensures optimal usage of coolants or emissions of ozone-depleting HCFC and aerosols.

 

Other Sector Specific Initiatives

1. Air Pollution

• National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched under the Central Sector “Control of Pollution” Scheme as a long-term, time-bound, national strategy to combat air pollution.
• Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): Notified on January 12, 2017, for the prevention, control, and abatement of air pollution in Delhi and NCR.
• National Air Quality Index (NAQI): Simplifies air quality data by classifying pollution levels into six categories: Good, Satisfactory, Moderate, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe. Includes a color code to indicate pollution severity.
• Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region: Established to supersede all existing bodies in the NCR for air pollution and quality management.

2. Renewable Energy

• PM KUSUM: PM Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthan Mahabhiyan Scheme aims to install solar pumps and grid-connected solar and renewable energy plants for farmers.
• PLI Scheme: Offers financial incentives to boost domestic manufacturing and attract investments in the electronics and semiconductor sectors.
• Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects: Plans to set up at least 25 solar parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects.
• Rooftop Scheme: Executed by SECI, with 200 MW of projects allocated, including 45 MW already commissioned.
• SATAT Scheme: Stands for “Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation.” Focuses on establishing compressed biogas production plants for use in automotive fuels.

3. Green Economy

• National Biofuel Policy: Targets achieving 20% blending of biofuels with fossil fuels by 2030. Aims to enhance farmers’ income, create employment, and reduce imports.
• FAME India: Promotes the use of electric and hybrid vehicles by providing subsidies of up to 30%. Reduces reliance on fossil fuels, leading to cost savings.
• National E-Mobility Mission Plan 2013: Encourages affordable and efficient electric vehicles to boost consumer adoption and indigenous manufacturing.

Bilateral Initiatives

Country	Initiatives
France	Promotion of renewable energy technologies was identified as an area of mutual interest. Proposal for setting up a sub-group on Clean Energy Technology.
Norway	Collaboration with the Norwegian Government, CEBPOL, and the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) established in Chennai. Includes cooperation in hazardous waste management and other areas.
USA	Four landscapes in India were selected under REDD+ with ongoing work in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim. Several technical exchange programs and studies are underway.
Canada	Integrated water management for the Ganga Basin identified as a collaboration avenue.

 

India’s Climate Performance

1. Global Ranking

• Climate Change Performance Index: Ranked 10th in the 2021 edition.
• Global Climate Risk Index: Ranked 7th most-affected country globally by climate change in 2019.

2. Agriculture

• Converted Degraded Land: Developed 11,000 hectares of degraded land into productive agricultural land.
• Micro-Irrigation: Brought 1 million hectares under micro-irrigation to promote water efficiency.

3. Himalayan Ecosystem

• Institutional Setup: Six new centers established to address climate change in the Himalayas.
• Monitoring: Observational networks created to monitor the health of the Himalayan ecosystem.

4. Renewable Energy

• Installed Capacity: As of 2020, 38% of India’s electricity generation capacity is from renewable sources.
• Solar and Wind Capacity: Renewable electricity capacity projected to more than double by 2022, including a 15-fold increase in solar power since 2016.
• Current Targets: India aims for 175,000 MW of renewable energy by 2022.
• Transportation: Investments in sustainable transportation increased by 43% from 2016-17 to 2017-18.

5. Investments

• Annual Investments: India spends $19 billion annually on climate change mitigation and adaptation.
• Growth: Investment in climate change initiatives increased by 24% from 2017-18.
• Increased Budgets: Expenditure on climate-related mitigation projects doubled between 2016-17 and 2017-18, with budget allocations increasing by 36%.

6. Forests

• Ranking: India is ranked 3rd globally for net annual forest area gain.
• Forest Cover: Increased by nearly 3% over the last decade (State of India’s Forest Report, 2019).

7. Issues

• Global Pressures: Pressures to limit greenhouse gases and the emergence of new technologies will make it more complicated for India to power its industries and provide electricity to its citizens in conventional ways.
• High Import Dependence: India is highly reliant on imports of solar components for its solar power installations.
• Farm Subsidies: The minimum support price combined with helpful electricity and fertilizer subsidies encourages farmers to grow water-intensive crops, such as paddy.
• Incentivising Manufacturing: Industrial growth is being incentivized to increase economic growth in India, which involves the use of fossil fuels and depletes natural resources.
• Multiplicity of Schemes: Though the government has announced new schemes to meet the climate change objectives, it has not aligned or integrated them with NAPCC.
• Poor Infrastructure Development: Creation of assets, such as irrigation canals and water treatment plants, has also crawled at a snail’s pace.
  • Data: In the last 10 years, just 1,237 water bodies have been rejuvenated as against a target of 10,000.
• EIA Notification: The recent notification on environmental impact assessment reduces the time for consultation and exempts certain categories.
• Centre-State Issues: Many states do not prioritize climate issues and leave it to the center for implementation, thus creating inequality in efforts.
• Solar Parks Schemes: The target was to set up solar parks of about 500 MW capacity, but due to a lack of interest among states, this target has been brought down to 50 MW.
• Rooftop Installation Scheme: India should have had an installed capacity of 10,000 MW by 2017-18. However, only 1,222 MW of rooftop capacity had been installed as of July 31, 2018.
• Weak Enforcement: There is no progress or funds allocated for the mission on sustainable habitat.

 

As the specter of climate change grows clearer, it is becoming increasingly obvious that pursuing development without internalizing climate change considerations risks ignoring a big piece of the puzzle. A central element of the new government’s agenda must be to internalize and mainstream climate considerations.