MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

The Arab conquest of Sind started a chain of events which led to the conquering of Delhi by the 11th Century by an Islamic ruler. Local architects retained local elements as well and introduced elements from Persian architectural style to their creations. This style of architecture became known as the Indo – Islamic or the Indo Saracenic architecture. The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally categorized as follows:

• The Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)
  • Mamluks, Khiljis, Tuglaqs, Lodhis
• The Provincial styles (Bengal, Malwa, Rajputana)
• The Mughal Style

Detailed Characteristics of the Mamluqs (or Slave Dynasty) architecture

• First Mosque in Northern India: Constructed using materials from 27 demolished Jain temples (e.g., Quwwat ul Islam Mosque).
• Open Quadrangular Court: Often used in mosques (e.g., Quwwat ul Islam Mosque).
• Hindu/Jain Influence: Many Sultanate-era buildings used materials from Hindu or Jain temples. Over time, plaster coverings fell away, revealing the original temple features.
• Presence of Mihrab: Found in mosques (e.g., Iltutmish’s tomb).
• Calligraphy: Used as decoration (e.g., Iltutmish’s tomb).
• Arabesque Design: Geometrical vegetal ornamentation.
• True Dome and True Arches: First introduced in Balban’s tomb, featuring radiating voussoirs.
• Minars: Minarets introduced as part of mosque structures (e.g., Qutb Minar).

Khilji Dynasty

• Arcade Style of Architecture: This style, featuring arches and domes, replaced the traditional trabeate style.
  • Example: Alai Darwaza by Ala-ud-din Khilji.
• Use of Red Sandstone: Widely used in construction by the Khiljis (earlier dynasties used grey sandstone).
  • Example: Jamat Khana Masjid by Khizr Khan.
• Perso-Arabic Inscriptions: Found on monuments from this era.
  • Example: Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort.
• Mortar: Used as a cementing agent.
  • Example: Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort.
• Military Architecture: Strengthened structures for defensive purposes.

Tughlaq Dynasty

• Focus on Structural Integrity: Emphasis was on building strong structures with less decoration.
  • Example: Cities of Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, and Ferozabad.
• Used Grey Sandstone: A continuation from earlier architecture.
  • Example: Tughlaqabad Fort.
• Batter Style of Construction: Characterized by sloping walls for extra strength.
  • Example: Tughlaqabad Fort.
• Octagonal Drum for Domes: Domes often rested on an octagonal base.
  • Example: Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq’s tomb.
• Use of Rubble and Plaster: Less refined materials were used, with rubble covered by plaster.
  • Example: Firoz Shah Kotla.
• Tapering Structure: Buildings were thicker at the base with tapering towers.
  • Example: Khirki Mosque.
• Crisis Period for Architecture: Surface decorations became limited to gliding and painting on plaster.
  • Example: Kali Masjid, Begumpuri Mosque.

Lodi Dynasty

• Introduction of Double Domes: Hollow domes were used to reduce the height of the dome interior.
  • Example: Sikandar Lodi’s Tomb.
• Base Plan: Two types of tomb architecture were prevalent:
  • Octagonal plan: Example: Tomb of Sikandar Lodi.
  • Square plan: Example: Moth ki Masjid.
• No Lavish Decorations: Tombs during this period were simple and bare, without lavish ornamentation.
  • Example: Lodi Gardens, the establishment of Agra by Sikandar Lodi.

Different characteristics introduced by various Provincial Styles

1. Bengal School:

• Construction Material: Predominantly used clay bricks and terracotta. Stones came from local mines in the Rarh region.
• Bangla Roofs: The mosques of this period had sloping roofs, similar to the traditional rural paddy-roofed huts of Bengal.
• Absence of Minars: Sultanate-era mosques lacked minarets but had richly designed mihrabs and minbars.
• Traditional Building Style: Influenced by Bengali Hindu temple architecture, particularly in roof designs.
• Major Examples:
  • Qadam Rasul Mosque in Gaur.
  • Adina Mosque in Pandua.

2. Malwa School:

• Construction Material: Used different colored stones and marbles.
• Large Windows: The buildings had large windows, possibly influenced by European architecture, often decorated with arches and pillars.
• Use of Stairs: Stairs were aesthetically enhanced as part of the design.
• Absence of Minars: No minarets were used in this style.
• Environmental Adaptations: The use of large windows and light pavilions allowed for better ventilation and cooling.
• Use of Water: Artificial reservoirs, known as baulis, were common for water storage.
• Construction Technique: Batter system, introduced by the Tughlaqs, allowed buildings to be constructed using local materials.
• Examples:
  • Raani Roopmati Pavilion.
  • Jahaz Mahal.
  • Ashrafi Mahal.

3. Rajputana School:

• Mughal Influence: The Rajput architecture during this period showed Mughal influence in size and design but remained unique.
• Hanging Balcony: Introduction of hanging balconies in various shapes and sizes.
• Arch Cornices: Built in an arch shape, creating shadows that resembled a bow.
• Decorations: Featured decorative marble work with mirrors and small paintings.
• Cenotaph Memorials: The Rajput dynasties-built cenotaph memorials, often in chatri form (domed pavilions) for cremation sites.
  • Example: Ahar Cenotaphs outside Udaipur.
• Traditional Hindu town planning: The walled city of Jaipur was formed in 1727 by Kacchwaha Rajput ruler Jai Singh II, and is a unique example of traditional Hindu town planning, following the precepts set out in much Hindu texts
• Major examples: Hawa Mahal, Jaipur with hanging balconies, Udaipur Palace

Features and Important Structures of Mughal Architecture:

1. Humayun:

• Persian Style: Persian influences became prominent in the architecture of this period. Humayun began the foundation of a city named Dinpanah, but it remained incomplete.

2. Sher Shah (Sher Shah Suri):

• Afghan Style: Sher Shah Suri introduced Afghan architectural elements and constructed the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna to commemorate his reign.
  • Example: Qila-e-Quhunnah (Mosque of the Old Fort).
• Transition from Lodhi Style to Mughal Style: Sher Shah re-constructed an old Mauryan road, renaming it Sadak-e-Azam (Great Road), marking a shift in architectural style.

3. Akbar:

• Use of Red Sandstone: Akbar’s reign saw the extensive use of red sandstone as a construction material.
  • Example: Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Charbagh Style: Introduced the Charbagh style of garden design, which divides a square into four quadrants, often representing the Islamic concept of paradise.
  • Example: Gardens in Agra Fort.
• Use of Tudor Arch: Akbar introduced the Tudor arch (four-centered arch).
  • Example: Buland Darwaza.
• Blend of Hindu and Persian Styles: Many structures from Akbar’s time represent a fusion of Hindu and Persian architectural styles.
  • Example: Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Jaali Work: Mughal architecture under Akbar is known for jaali (intricate latticework) designs, allowing filtered light and air.
  • Example: Salim Chisti’s Tomb in white marble, which features beautiful jaali work.
• Minars: Hiran Minar was built in memory of Akbar’s favorite elephant, Hiran, and also functioned as a lighthouse for travelers.

4. Jahangir:

• Era of Tombs: Jahangir supervised the construction of several important tombs, including Akbar’s Tomb in Sikandra and his own in Lahore. His wife, Noor Jahan, also commissioned significant structures such as Itmad-ud-Daulah’s Tomb.
• Use of White Marble: During Jahangir’s time, the use of white marble replaced red sandstone in many structures, signifying a stylistic shift.
  • Example: Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah, the first Mughal structure built entirely of white marble.

5. Shah Jahan:

• Culmination of Mughal Architectural Features: His reign represents the peak of Mughal architecture, with the use of:
  • Calligraphy
  • Pietra-dura technique: Inlaying precious stones into marble.
  • Charbagh gardens
  • Water features: Pools, fountains, and drains for decoration.
  • Example: Taj Mahal showcases all these features.
• Use of Water: Water was a significant element in his architectural designs, used in courtyards and for decoration.
  • Example: Taj Mahal.
• Jaali Work: Fine latticework was a signature of buildings during Shah Jahan’s period.
  • Example: The jaali work in the Taj Mahal is extremely intricate and lace-like.
• Massive and Spacious: Mughal architecture under Shah Jahan introduced more spacious and broad structures compared to earlier, more congested Hindu architecture.
  • Example: Red Fort in Delhi.

6. Muhammad Azam Shah:

• Imitation: The last of the Mughals to engage in significant architectural projects, he built the Biwi-ka-Maqbara in memory of his mother, often considered a poor imitation of the Taj Mahal.

Common Features Across Indo-Islamic Architecture

1. Absence of Animal Figures: Unlike some earlier Indian styles, Indo-Islamic architecture avoided human and animal representations.
2. Symmetry: The architecture of this period was highly symmetrical, based on geometric patterns and decorative motifs.
3. Foreshortening Technique: This technique was used to make inscriptions appear closer than they really were, creating a unique visual effect.
4. Sarai: Inns or rest houses built along major routes for travelers, traders, and pilgrims, usually with a simple rectangular or square layout. These served as hubs of cross-cultural interaction.

Comparison of Indo-Islamic and Early Indian Architecture

New Elements: Indo-Islamic architecture introduced many new features distinct from the existing Indian styles, such as temples and secular architecture. The Islamic period emphasized styles that were quite different from earlier Indian designs, focusing more on geometric, symmetrical patterns and the use of domes, arches, and minarets.

Indo-Islamic Architecture

• Ornamental Decoration: Vital, but often avoided representing living beings. Instead, geometrical and arabesque patterns, along with plant and floral designs, were used.
• Representation of Living Beings: Muslims were forbidden to replicate living forms on surfaces, so they focused on non-figurative decoration.
• Open Court: Many Indo-Islamic structures featured open courts surrounded by colonnades.
• Use of Lime: Extensively used as mortar in construction.
• Arcuate Construction: Used arches and beams (arcuate style) rather than the trabeate style common in earlier Indian architecture.
• Mosques: Designed to be light and open, emphasizing openness in the prayer hall.
• Islamic Worship: Islamic prayer requires a large courtyard and spacious prayer hall for congregational worship.

Early Indian Architecture

• Ornamental Decoration: Equally important but largely naturalistic, showing human and animal forms in sculptures and paintings.
• Representation of Living Beings: Hindus adorned their structures with sculptures and paintings depicting deities, humans, and animals.
• Open Court: Similar structures were built in Chaityas and Viharas (Buddhist religious structures).
• Use of Lime: Very limited, relying more on stone masonry without lime mortar.
• Trabeate Construction: Used pillars, beams, and lintels in construction, with no arches.
• Temples: Typically dark and enclosed spaces, emphasizing the sacred inner sanctum (garbha-griha).
• Hindu Worship: Focused on individual prayer, with a cell for housing the deity’s image and small halls for worshippers, emphasizing personal devotion rather than large congregational spaces.