ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE

Rock-cut architecture is the creation of structures, buildings, and sculptures by excavating solid rock where it naturally occurs. It is designed and made by man from the start to finish. The three main uses of rock-cut architecture were:

• Temples like those in India
• Tombs like those in Petra, Jordan
• Cave dwellings like those in Cappadocia, Turkey

Evolution of rock-cut architecture in India

Mesolithic period: The Mesolithic period saw the first use and modifications of the early caves, a fact manifested by archaeological evidence. The Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh illustrate the settlement of human life in these rock shelters some hundreds of thousands of years ago, as also the initiation of the Stone Age in India.

Features of Mesolithic rock-cut architecture

• Rock cave paintings: These reflected the daily life of that period as most of the paintings showed animals, hunting scenes, etc.
• Aesthetic sense: Mesolithic sites had paintings of social life, sexual activity, childbirth, rearing of children, and burial ceremonies.
• Depiction of animals: Depicted animals include elephants, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard, squirrel, and sometimes birds.
• Themes of paintings: The hunting scenes were predominant in the period. It depicts people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows, and bows, and primitive men with traps and snares to catch animals.
• Social life: The young, old, children, and women equally find a place in these paintings. In many of the rock shelters, one can find handprints, fist prints, and dots made by the fingertips.
• Size and colour: This period mainly saw the use of red colour. It has a larger variety of themes, but the paintings are smaller in size.
• Climatic significance: The prevalence of rock-cut architecture also shows the warm climate of that period.
• Mythical representation: The boar rock in Bhimbetka is depicted with a mythical boar, which represents an age-old anthropomorphic or mythical representation of animals in Indian tradition.
• Ritualistic: The various rituals seen in the rocks might indicate rituals for agricultural prosperity, a characteristic feature of the Mesolithic period.

Comparing Mesolithic Art with Modern Painting

• Aesthetic Sense: Artists like Ravi Varma and Abanindranath Tagore shared a similar aesthetic sense to Mesolithic art, using realism to depict social life.
  • Example: Bharat Mata painting by Abanindranath Tagore.
• Theme: Mesolithic art illustrated man’s immediate surroundings and survival, contrasting with modern art’s classical interpretation of human life and experiences.
• Art Movements: No art movements are related to Mesolithic paintings. Several Art Movements like Dadaism, Surrealism, Cubism, Expressionism etc are part of modern paintings. 

During the Mauryan Period

Cave architecture during this period saw the emergence of rock-cut cave styles, primarily for religious purposes.

• Viharas: Residential halls for monks. Initially, these were used by the Ajivika sect but later became popular as Buddhist monasteries.
• Interior and Gates: The caves were marked by highly polished surfaces, particularly their walls and gateways. Decoration was minimal.
• Ornamentation: Caves were often simple, rectangular halls carved into hillsides, with minimal decoration similar to the polished Ashokan pillars.
• Examples:
  • Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves in Bihar, dating to the 3rd century BCE.
  • Lomas Rishi Cave/Grotto of Lomas Rishi: A cave sanctuary with sacred Ajivika architecture.

Post-Mauryan Period

Cave architecture evolved with two primary types:

1. Viharas: Expanded as residential halls for monks.
2. Chaityas: Prayer halls with quadrangular chambers and flat roofs.
3. Other Features: Courtyards, stone screens, human and animal figures for ornamentation.

Cave Tradition in Western India

• • Architectural Styles:
    • Apsidal Vault-Roof Chaitya Halls (e.g., Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja).
    • Flat-Roofed Quadrangular Halls (e.g., Kondivite in Maharashtra).
  • Examples:
    • Ajanta Caves: Famous for their apsidal chaitya halls and sculptures.
    • Karla Chaitya Hall: The largest rock-cut chaitya hall, consisting of two pillars, an apsidal vault-roof, and a stupa at the back. It is richly decorated with human and animal figures.
  • Bhaja Caves, Maharashtra [2nd AD]: They are a group of 22 rock-cut caves. It belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect and have a number of stupas, some with wooden architecture, with a vaulted horseshoe ceiling. The carving shows a woman playing tabla and another woman, performing dance.
  • Pandavleni caves/Nasik Caves [1st -3rd BCE]: They are a group of 23 caves. Most of the caves are viharas except one which is a chaitya.

• Junnar is the largest cave complex in India.
• Pitalkhora caves located in Khandesh distruct of Maharashtra.

Cave Tradition in Eastern India

• Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Odisha (1st–2nd BC):
  • Created during the Kalinga reign of King Kharavela, these caves were likely residences for Jain monks.
  • The caves include both natural and man-made caves, and they are famous for the Hathigumpha inscription, carved in Brahmi script, detailing the military campaigns of King Kharavela.

During the Gupta Period

Mural Paintings: Although the architectural style remained constant during the Gupta period, mural paintings became a significant feature of cave walls.

• Examples in Western India:

• Ajanta Caves, Maharashtra (250 BC–650 AD):
  • A group of 29 rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri ranges near Aurangabad.
  • 25 caves were used as Viharas, while four were Chaitya prayer halls.
• Ellora Caves, Maharashtra (5th–11th AD): A group of 34 caves (17 Brahmanical, 12 Buddhist, and 5 Jain). These caves reflect a diversity of styles and were constructed by various dynasties, including the Rashtrakuta and Yadava dynasties.
• Junagadh Caves, Gujarat: Three prominent sites: Khapra Kodia, Baba Pyare, and Uparkot. These caves stand 30–50 feet high.
• Mandapeshwar/Montperir Caves, Maharashtra: Initially built as a Brahmanical cave during the Gupta period, it was later converted into a Christian cave with sculptures of Nataraja and Sada Shiva.

• Examples in Central India:
• Bagh Caves, Madhya Pradesh (5th–6th AD): A group of nine Buddhist caves located along the Baghni River, similar in architecture to Ajanta caves. The Rang Mahal is a prominent structure here.
• Udayagiri Caves, Madhya Pradesh (5th AD): Built under the patronage of Chandragupta II, these caves are famous for the sculptures of the Varaha/Boar incarnation of Vishnu.

Rock-cut architecture in Eastern India

1. Andhra Pradesh:

• Guntapalle (2nd century BC): Circular cave with a stupa in the circular hall and a chaitya arch at the entrance. Relatively smaller compared to Western India caves, with several vihara caves (monastic residences) that are rectangular and single- or double-story.
• Rampaerrampallam: Small-scale excavations with rock-cut stupas on the hillock.
• Anakapalli (near Vishakhapatnam) (4th–5th BCE): Notable for the largest rock-cut stupa in the country, carved out of a hillock.
• Undavalli Caves (7th BCE): Carved from a single sandstone block, associated with the Vishnukundina dynasty. A fine example of Gupta architecture, with detailed designs on the second floor reflecting Chalukyan influence. The largest cave houses a huge reclining statue of Lord Vishnu and sculptures of Jain Tirthankaras.

2. Odisha:

• Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (1st–2nd BC): A significant complex with both natural and artificial caves, constructed for Jain monks under the rule of King Kharavela.

Rock-cut architecture in South India

Under Pallava Dynasty: Temple Architecture

The temples reflected stylistic taste of the individual rulers and can be classified into four stages chronologically. However, only the first 2 stages [Mahendra Group, Narsimha Group] had rock-cut temples while the latter two [Rajsimha Group and Nandivarman Group] replaced rock-cut temples with real structural temples.

1. Mahendra Group: Temples were primarily rock-cut and served as mandapas (assembly halls). Temples built under Mahendravarman were rock-cut and used as open mandapas, a style different from the Nagara style.
2. Narasimha Group: The rock-cut temples were intricately decorated with sculptures, and the mandapas were divided into different rathas (chariot-shaped temples). Dharmaraja Ratha was the biggest, and the smallest was called Draupadi Ratha. This stage saw the rise of Dravidian architecture, an evolution from the Dharmaraja Ratha.

Example: Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (UNESCO World Heritage Site):

• Ratha Temples/Pancha Ratha (around the 7th century AD): Earliest rock-cut temples in India, comprising Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Ratha.
• Rock-cut cave temples like Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple, and the Mahishasuramardini Mandapa.
• Others: Open-air rock reliefs and Shore Temple Complex.

Under Chalukyas: Temple Architecture

• Badami Cave Temples, Karnataka: A complex of Hindu and Jain temples. These are important examples of Indian rock-cut architecture, with themes ranging from Shiva as Nataraja to Vishnu as Trivikrama. Dates from the 6th century, showcasing early Indian rock-cut temple architecture.

Other Important Rock-cut Architecture in India

• Elephanta Caves, Maharashtra (5th–7th century AD): A UNESCO World Heritage Site, these caves are primarily dedicated to God Shiva. They also contain sculptures of Trimurti Sadashiva, Nataraja, and Yogishvara.
• Kailasa Temple, Ellora Caves, Maharashtra: The largest rock-cut temple at Ellora, carved out of a single rock cliff face. Considered the pinnacle of Indian rock-cut architecture, attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I. It features a blend of Pallava and Chalukya styles.

Significance of Rock-Cut Architecture in India

1. Depiction of Religious Value: Rock-cut architecture in India is predominantly religious.
   • Example: The Kailashnath Temple at Ellora, the temples at Mahabalipuram, and Jainism at Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves. The Ajivika sect is represented at Barabar Caves.
2. Architectural Proficiency: Ancient and medieval rock-cut structures showcase significant achievements in structural engineering and craftsmanship.
   • Example: The Kailashanath Temple at Ellora Caves is famous for being carved from the top down, a unique method that differs from the usual practice of carving into a hillside.
3. Depiction of Advancement: The progression of technique and tools over different periods can be observed in the rock-cut structures.
   • Example: Initially, caves were simple structures that evolved into monolithic temples, like the Kailashnath Temple.
4. Importance of Ancient Texts: Many rock-cut structures are based on themes and ideas derived from ancient texts.
   • Example: The Rathas of Mahabalipuram are based on characters from the Mahabharata.
5. Knowledge about Kingdoms: The grandeur and patronage of the rulers who commissioned these structures are evident in the architecture.
   • Example: The rock-cut structures display the power and authority of ancient kingdoms.
6. Economic Benefits: 

• Tourism: Sites such as Mahabalipuram, Ajanta, Ellora, and Elephanta Caves are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, attracting tourists.
• Local Development: Tourism provides employment opportunities and boosts local economies.
• Foreign Exchange Earner: UNESCO recognition makes these sites attractive to foreign tourists, contributing to the economy.

1. Society: The rock-shelters of Bhimbetka reflect ancient human interaction with the environment. The Mandapeshwar Cave entrance shows gender equality through donor sculptures.
2. Secular Values: The Ellora Caves assimilate multiple religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, reflecting India’s rich religious and cultural diversity.