SANSKRIT LITERATURE

The Sanskrit language is divided into Vedic and the classical.

1. Vedic Literature: Includes the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.
2. Classical Literature: Includes the great epics (Ramayana, Mahabharata), Puranas, Kavya (epic poetry), Natakas (drama), and various genres like lyric poetry, romance, didactic fables, gnomic poetry, scientific literature (grammar, law, astronomy, etc.).

Features

• Secular: Classical Sanskrit literature is largely secular.
• Regulation of Language: Language during this period was regulated by Panini, a great grammarian.
• Kavya Tradition: Emphasis on form, style, figures of speech, descriptions, and detailed storylines.
• Rules of Performances: Theatre rules (acting, gestures, Rasa, stage direction) were formalized in Natyashastra by Bharata.
• Division between Art and Religion: Classical Sanskrit poetry reflects a fusion of erotic and religious sentiments, suggesting a closer relationship between art and religion in Indian culture.

Important Sanskrit Poets and Their Works

1. Kalidasa (380–415 AD): Known as the poet of love and beauty, Kalidasa’s works affirm life and the joy found in pure love.

• Epics:
  • Kumarasambhava (The birth of Kumar/Skanda).
  • Raghuvamsa (The dynasty of Raghu).
• Smaller Epics:
  • Meghaduta (The cloud messenger).
  • Ritusamhara (Medley of seasons).
• Plays:
  • Malavikagnimitra (Malavika and Agnimitra).
  • Vikramorvasiya (Vikram and Urvasi).
  • Abhijnana Shakuntala (The recognition of Shakuntala).

1. Sudraka (248 AD): Mrichchakatika (The Clay Cart): A social drama that explores themes of love and political revolution.
2. Bhasa (4th century BC–2nd century AD): Known for 13 plays discovered in the 20th century, making him one of the most staged Sanskrit playwrights.
   • Example: Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in a dream).
3. Bhavabhuti (700 AD): His play Uttara-Ramacharitam (Later life of Rama) touches on Rama’s life after the events of the Ramayana.
4. Bharavi (550 AD): Kiratarjuniya (Kirat and Arjun): An epic narrative of Arjuna’s encounter with Shiva.
5. Magha (650–700 AD): Shishupalavadha (The killing of Shishupala): A poem focusing on the killing of Shishupala by Krishna.
6. Harisena: Known for his poems praising Samudra Gupta.
7. Jayadeva: Famous for his composition Gita Govinda, which beautifully describes the phases of love between Krishna and Radha in lyrical language.
8. Fables: Sanskrit literature includes popular fables, retelling folklore and offering practical wisdom.
   • Vishnu Sharma: Known for the Panchatantra, a collection of didactic fables dealing with politics and practical wisdom.
   • Narayan Pandit: Author of Hitopadesha, featuring animal-human and non-human stories, providing moral advice.
9. Others: Writers like Sriharsha and Bhatti contributed significant literary works.

Significance/Purpose of Poetry, Drama, etc.

• Religious and Ethical Norms: Literature aims to emphasize a religious and cultured way of life without violating ethical norms.
• Entertainment: The main goal of Kavya (poetry) and Nataka (drama) is to provide spectator diversion and entertainment (Lokaranjana).
• Stimulating Emotions: Literature seeks to stimulate feelings and give perspective to readers and viewers.
• Philosophical Perspective: Sanskrit drama symbolizes the journey of the human soul, moving from attachment to non-attachment, and from temporal to eternal.

Pali and Prakrit Literature: Pali and Prakrit were spoken languages after the Vedic period.

• Prakrit refers to any language that deviated from Sanskrit.
• Pali is an archaic Prakrit and a combination of various dialects.

Buddhist Literature

• Pali was used by Lord Buddha (500 B.C.) to deliver his sermons.
• Types of Buddhist Literature:

1. Canonical:

• Tipitaka (Threefold Basket):
  • Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of monastic discipline for Buddhist monks.
  • Sutta Pitaka: Collection of speeches and dialogues of the Buddha.
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Explains ethics, psychology, and the theory of knowledge.

1. Non-Canonical:
   • Jataka: Stories of Buddha’s former births, available in both Sanskrit and Pali, focusing on moral lessons.

Some Other Buddhist Texts

• Buddhacharita: Written by Asvaghosha in Sanskrit. It is a biography of Buddha.
• Dipavamsa: Known as the “Chronicle of the Island”, it mentions Buddha’s visit to Sri Lanka and the arrival of his tooth relic.
• Milinda Panho: A dialogue between King Meander (Milinda) and Buddhist monk Nagasena, focusing on philosophical inquiries.
• Mahavamsa: An epic poem similar to the Dipavamsa, written in Pali, chronicling the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
• Mahavastu: Contains Jataka and Avadana tales, written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit.
• Bodhi Vamsa: A prose-poem written in the 12th century in Sri Lanka, translated from Sinhalese into Sanskritised Pali.
• Mahavibhasa Shastra: Written around 150 AD, this Mahayana text discusses Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophies.

Jain Literature

1. Nature: Jain tales are generally didactic, focusing on moral lessons and teachings.
2. Jain Agamas:

• Teachings: Sacred texts of Jainism, attributed to the teachings of the Tirthankaras.
• Compilation: The present Angas were recompiled by a council of monks in Vallabhi (Gujarat) during the mid-5th century AD.
• Authority:
  • Digambara sect believes the original teachings were lost and does not recognize the Agamas compiled in Vallabhi.
• Language: Written in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit.
• Theme: Focuses on reverence for life, with strict codes of vegetarianism, asceticism, compassion, and non-violence.

1. Digambara Texts: Karmaprabhritha (discussion on karma) and Shatkhandagama are important Digambara works.
2. Jain Puranas:

• Harivamsa Purana: A Jain version of stories involving the Kauravas, Pandavas, Krishna, and Balarama.
• Adi Purana: Chronicles the life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabha.
• Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana: Contains stories of Jain saints, kings, and heroes, discussing rituals, dream interpretation, town planning, and duties of a king.

1. Other Jain Texts:

• Uvasaggaharam Stotra and Kalpa Sutra (biographies of Jain Tirthankaras) by Bhadrabahu.
• Samayasara and Niyamasara by Acharya Kundkund, discussing Jain philosophy.
• Nalayira: An ancient Tamil text written by Jain monks.

Other Prakrit Literature:

• Tattvartha-sutra (2nd–5th century AD): Written by Umaswati, it is a key Jain text written in Sanskrit, focusing on logic, epistemology, ethics, and astronomy. It is accepted by both the Digambara and Svetambara Jain sects.
• Mahapurana and Adipurana (8th–9th centuries): Written by Jinasena, these are important Jain works that describe Jain cosmology and the life of the first Tirthankara, Rishabha.
• Hemachandra Suri (12th century): A famous Jain scholar who wrote grammars for Sanskrit and Prakrit, as well as poetry and prosody. He was awarded the title Kalikalasarvajna (“the all-knowing of Kaliyuga”).
• Gathasaptashati (300 AD): A Prakrit text attributed to Hala, consisting of 700 erotic verses, with 44 contributed by Hala himself.

Persian Literature in India

• Roots of Persian: Persian came to India with the Turks and Mongols and became the language of the court during the 12th century.
• Role of the Delhi Sultanate: Persian became the official language of administration and literary communication.

Delhi Sultanate

• Ziauddin Barani:
  • Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi: Covers the reign of Ghiyas ud din Balban to the first six years of Firoz Shah Tughluq.
  • Fatwa-i-Jahandari: Discusses the political ideals for a Muslim ruler, comparable to Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince.
• Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehlvi:
  • Created exceptional Persian poetry, contributing to the rich literary tradition of the Delhi Sultanate.

Mughal Period

• During the Mughal era, Persian was the language of the court and intellectual writings.
• Babur: The founder of the Mughal dynasty wrote poetry and memoirs in Persian (though his native language was Turkish).

1. Babur Nama: Memoirs of Babur, originally written in Turkish, were later translated into Persian. It covers his life and reign.
2. Humayun-namah: Written by Gulbadan Begum (Humayun’s half-sister), it provides an account of Humayun’s life and struggles.
3. Akbar Nama: Written by Abu’l Fazl, this is a Persian chronicle about Akbar’s reign.

• Sources: Based on official records, waqai (daily reports), and oral testimonies from knowledgeable people.
• Third Volume (Ain-i-Akbari):
  • Describes the Mughal Empire as a composite culture with diverse populations including Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Muslims.
  • Volume 1: Contains a history of mankind from Adam to Akbar’s reign, covering the first 30 years of Akbar’s life.
  • Volume 2: Chronicles up to the 46th year of Akbar’s reign (1601).
• Purpose:
  • To offer a comprehensive view of Akbar’s empire—geographic, social, administrative, and cultural.
  • Provides a diachronic record of political events while showcasing the diverse nature of the empire.

1. Tuzk-e-Jahangiri:

• The autobiography of Jahangir, written in Persian.
• Covers reflections on art, politics, and personal insights into his reign and family.

1. Badshah Nama:

• The official history of Shah Jahan’s reign, written in three volumes (daftars) of ten lunar years each.
• Abdul Hamid Lahori wrote the first and second daftars, covering the first two decades of Shah Jahan’s reign (1627–1647).

1. Translations of Sanskrit Texts: Mughal emperors commissioned Persian translations of key Sanskrit texts.

• The Mahabharata was translated as the Razmnama (Book of Wars).
• Ramayana was also translated into Persian.

1. Padmavat: Composed in 1540 by Malik Muhammad Jayasi, it is a famous Sufi allegorical work about the legendary queen Padmavati of Chittor.

Persian as the Language of Administration

• Persian was the administrative language during the Mughal period, and it reflected the daily life, official matters, and the general state of the empire.
• European accounts of India during this time were based on Jesuit writings, which also used Persian chronicles to describe India’s administrative and cultural practices.