MAJOR CROPS IN INDIA

MAJOR CROPS IN INDIA

SUGARCANE

Historical Background

• Mentioned in Vedas: References of sugar making by the Indians are found even in the Atharva Veda.
• Ancient presence: Since ancient times, Sugar has been produced in the local units in India using traditional Khandsari process.
  • Cane was cut in pieces – crushed under heavy weight – juice thus obtained was boiled and stirred, till it turned solids.
  • Solids of uneven shape and size were called sarkaran, a Sanskrit term for ‘gravel’.
  • Modern word ‘sugar’ is derived from the word Sarkara.
• Home of sugarcane: Thus, India has been the original home for sugarcane as well as sugar manufacture.
• First Sugar Mill: Modern sugar industry came on the Indian scene only in the middle of the 19th century, when it was introduced by the Dutch in North Bihar in about 1840.
• Early 20th C: By mid of the 20th century Sugar Industry expanded and before India’s independence there were 138 sugar mills in India.
• After partition: Around 67% sugar mills came in share of India and remaining in share of Pakistan.

Sugarcane Crop

1. Geographical Conditions of Growth
   • Temperature: It requires hot and humid climate with an average temperature of 21°C to 27°C.
   • Rainfall: 75-150 cm rainfall is favorable for sugarcane cultivation. Irrigation is required in those areas where rainfall is less than the prescribed limit.
   • Soil: Sugarcane can grow in any soil which can retain moisture. Ideal soil for sugarcane is deep rich loamy soil. The soil needs to be rich in nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus but neither it should be neither too acidic nor too alkaline.
   • Effect on soil: It is a soil-exhausting crop and thus needs regular application of manure or fertilizers.
   • Season: It is a long maturing crop planted between February and April. Harvesting begins in October and November. So, it’s a Kharif Crop.
   • Type of crop: It is a tropical as well as sub-tropical crop.
     • Sugarcane in North India: The sub-tropical variety and has low sugar content. Also, sugar factories have to remain shut in winter seasons in North India. Also, sugarcane juice begins to dry up because of the long dry season in north India.
     • Sugarcane in South India: The tropical variety and high sugar content and high yield.
   • Labour: It is a labour-oriented cultivation and requires cheap labour. Ample human hands are required at every stage i.e. sowing, hoeing, weeding, irrigation, cutting, and carrying sugarcanes to the factories.
2. Geographical Distribution
   • Distribution: As far as distribution of sugarcane cultivation in India is concerned, there are three distinct geographical regions in the country. These regions are:
     • The Satluj-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar containing 51% of the total area and 60% of the country’s total production.
     • The black soil belt from Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu along the eastern slopes of the western Ghats.
     • Coastal Andhra Pradesh and Krishna river valley
3. Climatic effects
   • Too heavy rainfall: Results in low sugar content & deficiency in rainfall produces fibrous crop.
   • Temperature: Temperature above 20°C combined with open sky in the second half of the crop season helps in acquiring juice and its thickening.
     • Ideal conditions: Short cool dry winter season during ripening and harvesting is ideal.
     • Frost is detrimental to sugarcane: It must be harvested before frost season in northern parts where frost is a common phenomenon.
   • Wind effect: Hot dry winds like “Loo” are hostile to sugarcane. Both frost and loo are absent in South India. So south is ideal.
   • Coastal plains and western side of Western Ghats are generally avoided as the gusty winds (monsoon winds) damage the crop.

Production of Sugarcane in India

• Cropped area: Sugarcane is grown on around 2.8% of Gross Cropped Area of India.
• Production: India produced 33 million metric tons in 2017/2018.
• Largest sugarcane producing state of India: Uttar Pradesh, which has 38.61% share in overall sugarcane production as per 2013-14 figures.
• Second and third largest states: Maharashtra and Karnataka. Other main sugarcane producing states of India include Bihar, Assam, Haryana, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
• Sugar giant: With huge production of sugarcane as well as sugar; largest number of cane farmers; largest consumer of sugar; more than 500 sugar mills and one of the largest sugar exports, India is considered to be a sugar giant.
• India 2nd largest producer: India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in the world. But in production India lags behind Brazil – world’s largest producer of sugarcane.

Issues in Sugarcane Farming

• Shortages of fertilizers, improper and untimely use of fertilizers
• Uncertain weather conditions
• Inadequate irrigation
• Water-intensive crop
• Poor varieties of cane
• Small and fragmented holdings
• Backward methods of cultivation

These are some of the major causes of low yields in India (This is common for rice and sugarcane).

Initiatives

1. Sustainable Sugar Initiative
   • Launched: Jointly by International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and by ICRISAT and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
   • Issue to resolve: Sugarcane is a water-thirsty crop and an enormous amount of water is needed in its production. The problem of optimal utilization of water becomes a major issue in areas where irrigated crops and dryland farming are mixed.
   • Programme:
     • Introduces Bud Chip Technology of sugarcane cultivation.
     • Buds are used instead of sugarcane sections as the seed crops.
     • They are first sown in the nursery and then transplanted to the field after 40-45 days.
   • Benefits:
     • Saves around 30% of water.
     • Only 2 to 3 tonnes of sugarcanes are required as seed crop in 1 ha of land against 8 tonnes/ha in other methods.
     • The girth of sugarcane is larger and gives an excellent ratoon.
   • Limitations:
     • Intermittent system of irrigation is required, so farmers have to use sprinklers.
2. Ratooning System
   • Launched: Sugarcane Research Institute, Coimbatore introduced the system of ratooning to reduce the costs of sugarcane cultivation.
   • Description: The ratoon crop is the second or any other successive crop obtained from the roots left over in the field from the first crop. In this system, the sugarcane is cut leaving the root intact in the soil. This is widely practiced in different parts of the country.
   • Advantages:
     • Low cost of production, relatively shorter maturation period, and low-cost input and time are saved as there is no need for fresh sowing and growing of roots.
   • Limitations:
     • However, productivity decreases with each passing year, and ratooning becomes uncommercial after one or two years.

SUGARCANE INDUSTRY

Sugar Industry’s Location in India

1. The sugar industry is broadly distributed over two major areas of production:
   • North India: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, and Punjab in the north.
   • South India: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh in the south.
2. Location Factors
   • Availability of raw material: Sugarcane is the main raw material for making sugar. Sugar mills can be set up only in the sugarcane-producing areas.
   • Nearness to farms: Sugarcane gets dry soon after harvesting. It can neither be stored nor kept for a long period of time. Sugarcane should be taken immediately to the sugar mills after harvesting.
   • Cheap transportation facilities: Transportation cost of sugarcane is high. Generally, sugarcane is transported through bullock carts which can carry it up to 20 to 25 km. Recently, tractor trolleys and trucks have been used to carry sugarcane to the sugar mills.
   • Capital, market, and power: Beside these factors, capital, market, labour, and power also play a significant role in the localisation of this industry.

Reason for shifting of the sugar industry from North India to Peninsular India

• High yield: The production of sugarcane per hectare is high in Peninsular India. In fact, the sugarcane crop grows well in the tropical climate of South India.
• High sucrose content: The sucrose content is high in the tropical variety of sugarcane grown in the south.
• Long crushing season: The crushing season in South India is longer than in North India.
• Modern machinery: In South India, most of the mills have modern machinery.
• Cooperative holding: Most of the mills in Peninsular India operate in the cooperative sector where profit maximization is not the sole objective.

Significance of Sugar Industries

• Multiple linkages: Sugar is a labor-intensive industry that supports the entire value chain from cane-growing to sugar and alcohol production. Across multiple districts of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and several other states, it is the main source of employment.
• Provide employment: The sugar industry is a source of livelihood for 50 million farmers and their families. It provides direct employment to over 5 lakh skilled laborers but also to semi-skilled laborers in sugar mills and allied industries across the nation.
• Byproducts: The various byproducts of the sugar industry also contribute to economic growth and promote several allied industries. Sugarcane has emerged as a multi-product crop used as a basic raw material for the production of sugar, ethanol, paper, electricity, and a cogeneration of ancillary products.
• Multiple benefits: Molasses from sugar cane is used for alcohol production and livestock feeding since it is highly nutritious.
• Biofuel: In India, the vast majority of ethanol is produced from sugarcane molasses, a byproduct of sugar. Ethanol-blended fuel can help in reducing crude oil imports.
• Bagasse: Basic utilization of bagasse continues to be as a fuel. But it is also suitable raw material for paper industry. 30% of cellulose requirement comes from agricultural residues. However, since the mills are scattered all over the country, collection of surplus bagasse poses a problem and makes paper units uneconomical.

Problems of Sugar Industry

1. Sugarcane Crops
   • Low Yield of Sugarcane: Although India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation, the yield per hectare is extremely low compared to some of the major sugarcane-producing countries of the world.
     • For example: India’s yield is only 64.5 tonnes/hectare compared to 90 tonnes in Java and 121 tonnes in Hawaii, leading to low overall production compared to potential.
   • Short crushing season: The crushing season typically ranges from 4 to 7 months per year. The mills and their workers remain idle during the rest of the year, causing financial problems for the industry.
   • Monoculture of Sugarcane: Lack of crop rotation in some areas leads to depletion of soil nutrients, adversely affecting productivity.
   • Water Availability: Irregular water supply for irrigation, especially in north India, affects the sucrose content.
   • Fluctuating Production Trends: Sugarcane has to compete with other crops like cotton, oilseeds, and rice, affecting land allocation and production stability.
2. Sugar Mill Industry
   • Small and uneconomic size of mills: Most sugar mills in India have a low capacity of 1,000 to 1,500 tonnes per day, making large-scale production uneconomical.
   • Old machinery: Particularly in U.P. and Bihar, equipment is old and needs rehabilitation, but low profit margins prevent this.
   • Competition with Khandsari and Gur: These traditional products are excise-free and offer better prices, diverting raw material from organized mills.
     • For example: About 60% of cane grown is used for khandsari and gur, impacting organized industry supply.
   • High cost of production: Due to expensive technology and duties, production costs are among the highest globally.
   • Low recovery rate: India’s recovery rate is lower than other producers (e.g., 14-16% in Java, Hawaii).
3. Falling Sugar Prices
   • According to the Indian Sugar Mills Association, the FRP rose 50.9% between 2010-2013, causing dependency on debt due to low margins.
4. Government Policies
   • FRP vs SAP: Conflicts arise between Fair Remunerative Price (FRP) and State Advisory Price (SAP).
   • Regional imbalances: Concentration in a few states causes uneven development.
   • Minimum Distance Criterion: Leads to monopolies and farmer exploitation.
   • Low per capita consumption: India’s per capita sugar consumption is lower than global averages.
   • Faulty Trade Policy: Unclear export and import policies cause market volatility.
5. Farmers
   • Rising Arrears: Payment delays hinder financial planning.
     • For example: Arrears reached Rs 21,675 crore by April 2020.
   • Lack of quality seeds: Affects productivity.
6. Government Initiatives
   • De-regulation: Introduced in 2013.
   • Loan facilities: Capital loans for mills under assistance schemes.
   • Incentives: Financial aid through export schemes.
   • Extended financial assistance of Rs.4213 crore to mills through banks under the Soft Loan scheme.
7. Facilitated supply of ethanol under Ethanol Blended Petrol (EBP) programme: The Ethanol Blending Programme (EBP) aims to blend ethanol with motor spirit to reduce pollution, conserve foreign exchange, and enhance value addition in the sugar industry, enabling them to clear cane price arrears of farmers.

• Enhance blending percentage: Central Government scaled up blending targets from 5% to 10% under the EBP.
• Usage of molasses: Conversion of B-heavy molasses (higher sugar content than C-Molasses) into ethanol for manufacturing spirit and alcohol.
• The National Biofuel Policy 2018: Targets 20% ethanol blending in petrol and 5% biodiesel in diesel by 2030.
• Subsidies: Performance-based production subsidy of Rs.4.50 per quintal of cane crushed for farmers against their dues, contingent on export and ethanol supply.

1. Sugar Undertakings (SEFASU-2014): Interest-free loans as working capital to sugar mills for settling cane price arrears. Interest for five years borne by the Government via Sugar Development Fund.

1. Soft Loan to Sugar Mills: A 2015 scheme for soft loans to clear cane price arrears. Interest subvention for one year by the Government, benefitting about 32 lakh farmers.

1. Minimum Indicative Export Quotas (MIEQ): Indicative export targets to evacuate 4 mMT of sugar stocks for better price sentiments.

Measures Suggested by Rangarajan Committee:

• Removing Distance Norm: Review to allow better farmer prices.
• Reviewing Revenue Sharing Policy: Uniform pricing based on scientific principles.
• Duties: Cap import/export duty at 10%.
• Long-term agreements: Encourage long-term market arrangements.
• Exports and Byproducts: No bans on by-product exports; prices market-determined.
• Price Rationalization: Rationalize cane pricing to align with global standards.
• R&D: Research for high-yield, pest-resistant, high-sucrose varieties.

Additional Recommendations:

• Crushing Season: Extend by sowing/harvesting at optimal intervals.
• Yield: Increase agricultural output via research.
• Production Cost: Lower costs through by-product utilization (e.g., bagasse for paper, molasses for power alcohol).
• Technology: Upgrade aged machinery for efficiency.
• Export Promotion: Policy tweaks to boost exports.
• Diversification: Incentivize alcohol production and deregulate its export.

JUTE CROP

Historical Background:

• Integral part: Jute has long been central to East Bengal’s culture, especially West Bengal and Bangladesh.
• British Trading: The British began trading jute in the 17th century, using it in military supplies.
• Increased production: Wealthy British jute barons processed and exported products.
• First Jute Mill: Established in 1855 at Rishra (near Calcutta) by Mr. George Aclend.
• Bengal overtakes Scottish jute trade: By 1895, Bengal surpassed the Scottish jute industry.
• Partition (1947): Most mills stayed in India; 80% of jute-producing areas went to East Pakistan.
• First powered factory: Set up in 1959.

Jute Crop Growth Conditions:

1. Temperature: 25-30°C with 70-90% relative humidity.
2. Climate: Warm, wet conditions ideal for growth.
3. Rainfall: Minimum 1000 mm annually, with 160-200 cm needed during sowing.
4. Soil: New grey alluvial soil with good depth, receiving silt from annual floods, is most suitable for jute. However, jute is also widely grown in sandy loams and clay loams, especially river basins.
5. Suitable land: Plain or gentle slope/low land is ideal for jute cultivation.
   • For example: The Ganga delta region is ideal for jute cultivation due to fertile alluvium soil and favorable climate.
6. Effect on soil: Like cotton, jute depletes soil fertility rapidly, needing replenishment from annual silt-laden floods.
   • pH range: 4.8-5.8 is best; red soils may require heavy manuring.
7. Season: Typically cultivated as an inter-crop between kharif and rabi seasons, sown in February and harvested in October (8-10 months maturity).

Geographical Distribution:

• Predominantly in the eastern region (West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Tripura, and Meghalaya).
• West Bengal accounts for over 50% of total production.

Processing of Jute:

• Labor and water: Requires significant labor and water post-harvest.
• Retting: Immersing bundles for 3 weeks in stagnant water for softening.
• Peeling and Stripping: Manual removal of bark and fiber.
• Drying: Sun-dried and pressed into bales.

Note: All processing is manual, hence the need for high population density areas.

Jute Production:

• Leading producers: India, Bangladesh, China, Thailand.
• India is the largest producer, with significant contributions (50%+ globally).
• Indian Jute Mills’ Association: Predicted higher production for 2021.

Significance of Jute:

• Textile use: Known as ‘golden fiber’ for diverse applications.
• Soil benefits: Enhances soil fertility for subsequent crops.
• Economic: Vital source of income.
• Paper industry: Key renewable material.
• Decorative uses: Gaining recognition.
• Other: Used for bags, ropes, tarpaulins, etc.
• Environment: Biodegradable and low carbon footprint (e.g., burning plastic emits more CO2 than jute).

Jute Industry’s Location in India:

Distribution:

• West Bengal: 80% of production and mills, mostly within 64 km of Kolkata.
• Other States: Andhra Pradesh (10%), with the rest in UP and Bihar.

Location Factors:

• Raw material proximity.
• Transport: Cheap road and water transport.
• Labor: Abundant supply due to high population.
• Water: Essential for jute processing.
• Market: Facilitates capital flow.
• Power: Coal and energy sources like Raniganj fields within 200 km.

Reasons for High Mill Concentration in West Bengal:

• Raw material: Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.
• Water: Provided by the Hooghly River.
• Transport: River and railways.
• Climate: Humid for processing.
• Labour: High density of population in West Bengal, Bihar, and Eastern U.P provides cheap labor for the industry. Approximately 4 million farmers, mostly small and marginal, and 2 lakh workers are engaged in jute cultivation and production.
• Port: Calcutta port supports this region for importing machinery and exporting finished products abroad. The riverine nature of the port enables easy transportation.
• Market: Calcutta’s rich hinterland and industrial growth facilitate a ready market for jute.
• Capital availability: Kolkata had strong banking and financial support, being the capital of British India, aiding jute mill development.

Significance of Jute Industries

1. Economic:
   • Labor-intensive: Engages ~4.35 million people, driving diverse job creation (e.g., jute bags, footwear).
   • Regional balance: Employs ~7,500 annually, promising expansion in East India.
   • Engineering: Jute geo-textiles aid erosion control, filtration, and agriculture.
   • Exports: Contributes Rs. 1,000–1,200 crores annually.
2. Environmental:
   • Biodegradable: Jute is eco-friendly and consumes CO2, releasing oxygen.
   • Plastic alternative: Reusable and reduces pollution.
   • Soil enrichment: Enhances fertility and doesn’t emit toxic gases when burned.

Advantages of Jute over Polypropylene/Plastic:

• Eco-friendly, non-toxic, high porosity.
• Recyclable and less polluting.

Problems of Jute Industry:

• Raw material shortage: Imports from Bangladesh, Brazil; demand for ‘Golden Fiber Revolution.’
• Global competition: From countries like Japan and South Korea.
• Old machinery: 25+ years outdated.
• Limited acreage: Low productivity.
• Synthetic competition: Cost and quality challenges.
• Strikes: Labor disputes hinder production.
• Low marketing: Public not aware of jute’s environmental benefits.
• Not waterproof: Restricted use in certain sectors.

Government Initiatives:

1. Schemes:

• ISAPM (2013): Modernize mills.
• Jute-ICARE (2015): Provide subsidized seeds and improved retting.
• Jute Technology Mission (JTM): Launched in 2006 with four mini missions, focusing on research, development, and tech transfer.

1. Policies and Executive actions

• Mandatory Packing: Government has approved to expand the scope of mandatory packaging norms under Jute Packaging Material (JPM) Act, 1987. It has approved that 100% of the food grains and 20% of sugar shall be mandatorily packed in diversified jute bags.
  • Aim: The decision aims to benefit farmers and workers in the Eastern and Northeastern parts of the country.
  • Dependence on government: The jute industry is predominantly dependent on the government sector, which purchases jute bags worth more than Rs 6,500 crore every year for packing food grains.
• National Jute Policy: The government of India announced its First National Jute Policy in April 2005 to facilitate the Sector to attain and sustain a pre-eminent global standing in the manufacture and export of Jute products by enabling the Jute Industry to build world-class state-of-the-art manufacturing capabilities.
• Jute SMART: An e-governance initiative was launched to promote transparency in the jute sector providing an integrated platform for procurement of B-Twill sacking by Government agencies.
• Jute Corporation of India (JCI): Has been given a grant of Rs. 100 crore for 2 years starting from 2018-19 to enable JCI to conduct MSP operations and ensure price stabilization in the jute sector.
• Jute Design Cell: To support diversification of the jute sector, the National Jute Board collaborated with the National Institute of Design and established a Jute Design Cell at Gandhinagar.
• Jute Geo Textiles and Agro-Textiles: Promotion of these has been taken up with State Governments, especially in the North Eastern region, and with the Ministry of Road Transport and Ministry of Water Resources.
• National Jute Board: Implements various schemes for market development, workers’ welfare, and promotion of diversification and exports.

Measures to be taken

• Improve quality: New bleaching, dyeing, and finishing techniques make jute softer with aesthetic appeal.
• Diversification of jute products: Includes clothing, decorative items, and matting.
• Reduce cost: R&D to implement modern technologies and intensive modernization.
• Increase cultivation: Expand due to growing demand in UP and MP.
• Encourage usage: Promote jute as an eco-friendly alternative.
• Promotion: Make jute a lifestyle choice.

COTTON

Historical Background

• Earliest evidences: Earliest evidences of Cotton are from Mehrgarh where cotton cultivated 7,000 years ago.
• IVC: During the Indus Valley Civilization, cotton was cultivated abundantly and cotton industry was well developed. Some methods used in the Indus Valley for the spinning and fabrication of the cotton continued to be used in India until modern industrialization came.

Cotton Crop

1. Geographical Conditions of Growth

• Temperature: Cotton is the crop of tropical and sub-tropical areas and requires uniformly high temperature varying between 21°C and 30°C.
• Climate: It grows mostly in the areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.
• Rainfall: It requires modest amount of rainfall of 50 to 100cm. However, cotton is successfully grown with the help of irrigation in the areas where rainfall is less than 50 cm. High amount of rainfall in the beginning and sunny and dry weather at the time of ripening are very useful for a good crop.
• Soil: Cotton cultivation is very closely related to Black soils of Deccan and Malwa plateau. However, it also grows well in alluvial soils of the Satluj-Ganga plain and red and laterite soils of the peninsular region.
• Four cultivated species of cotton: Gossypium arboreum, G.herbaceum, G.hirsutum and G.barbadense.
  • Gossypium arboreum and G.herbaceum are known as old-world cotton or Asiatic cotton.
  • G.hirsutum is also known as American cotton or upland cotton and G.barbadense as Egyptian cotton. These are both new world cotton species.
• Labour: As picking of cotton has not been made mechanized till now, therefore a lot of cheap and efficient labour is required at the time of picking.
• Effect on soil: Just like jute, cotton also exhausts the fertility of soil rapidly.