NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA

NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA

Natural vegetation refers to plant communities that grow naturally without human aid and have remained undisturbed for long periods, known as virgin vegetation. Cultivated crops, fruits, and orchards are not considered natural vegetation.

Factors Affecting Vegetation:

• Soil: Different soil types support different vegetation. For example, wet, marshy soil supports mangrove vegetation.
• Land (Topography): Land affects vegetation directly or indirectly. Fertile land is better for agriculture.
• Temperature and Humidity: These factors influence the type of vegetation. Areas with high temperature and humidity support evergreen forests, while high temperature and low humidity favor desert or thorny vegetation.
• Precipitation: In areas where rainfall is higher, vegetation is denser. According to the amount of rainfall in a particular region, vegetation types vary.
• Sunlight: Trees grow faster in summer due to longer exposure to sunlight. The availability of sunlight differs based on factors such as altitude and latitude.
• Altitude: The relationship between altitude and vegetation was first described by Alexander Von Humboldt.
• Plant Growth Regulators: Various growth regulators like auxin, cytokinin, and gibberellins are used to regulate plant growth.
• Winds: Strong, persistent winds can disfigure trees and permanently bend them in one direction. In African savannas, these winds can shape plants into umbrella forms, displaying thin edges to the wind.

Classification of Natural Vegetation in India

• Tropical Evergreen Forests: Found in areas with over 200 cm of rainfall, mainly in the northeastern regions like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as well as the Western Ghats and the Tarai regions of the Himalayas. These forests have dense, multilayered vegetation, including trees like sandalwood, rosewood, mahogany, and bamboo.
• Tropical Semi Evergreen Forests: Found on the western coast, Assam, lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha, and the Andamans, requiring 200-250 cm of rainfall. The temperature ranges from 24°C to 27°C. These forests are less dense than tropical evergreen forests and have trees with buttressed trunks.
• Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests): Found in areas with rainfall ranging from 70-200 cm. They can be further divided into:
  • Moist Deciduous: Rainfall between 100-200 cm, located in the northeastern states along the Himalayas and the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats. Common trees include teak, sal, shisham, and sandalwood.
  • Dry Deciduous: Rainfall between 70-100 cm, common in the Peninsular region, UP plains, and Bihar. Trees are spaced apart, and leaves are shed during dry seasons. Trees found here include tendu, palas, amaltas, and khair.
• Thorn Forests: Found in semi-arid regions like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana. These regions have annual rainfall less than 75 cm, with a mean temperature of 25°-30°C. Trees have long roots for deep water absorption and succulent stems to conserve water. Key species include acacias, wild palms, tamarinds, and cacti.
• Montane Forests: These forests are found in mountains and vary significantly along mountain slopes. On the foothills of the Himalayas, up to a height of 1500 meters, evergreen trees like Sal, teak, and bamboo grow abundantly. On higher slopes, temperate conifer trees such as pine, fir, and oak are found. At the highest elevations, rhododendrons and junipers are present, with alpine grasslands extending up to the snowline.
• Tidal or Mangrove Forests: Found along coastal areas and deltas such as the Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi, Godavari, and Ganga deltas. In West Bengal, they are known as the ‘Sundarbans,’ with the ‘Sundari’ tree being the most common. Other significant trees include Hogla, Garan, and Pasur. These forests are valuable for the timber industry and provide firewood. Palm and coconut trees enhance the coastal landscape.

Importance of Natural Vegetation

1. Importance for Human Life
   • Essential for ecosystem balance and nutrient cycling.
   • Influences soil quality and characteristics.
   • Reduces noise pollution.
   • Contributes to the global economy by providing resources.
   • Provides products that fulfill human and environmental needs.
   • Converts solar energy to biomass energy.
   • Acts as a life-support system for tribal communities.
2. Importance for the Environment
   • Serves as a habitat and energy source for wildlife.
   • Helps cool temperatures during summer.
   • Provides neighborhood buffers and increases privacy.
   • Reduces air pollutants like ozone.
   • Lowers stormwater runoff and downstream flooding.
   • Decreases water temperature downstream.
   • Maintains water levels during droughts.

MANGROVES

Mangroves are a unique type of vegetation found in intertidal regions where freshwater and saltwater mix, such as bays, estuaries, creeks, and lagoons. These salt-tolerant plants are adapted to harsh conditions and hold economic and ecological importance.

Mangroves in India

• Total Area: India has about 4,921 square kilometers of mangrove forests, accounting for over 3% of the world’s total.
• Largest Sites: The largest mangrove forest in India is the Sundarbans in the Gangetic Delta, spanning India and Bangladesh. The second-largest mangrove ecosystem in India is Bhitarkanika, located on the Odisha coast.

Other Sites

• The Godavari-Krishna Mangrove Forests: Located on the east coast of Andhra Pradesh.
• The Pichavaram Mangroves: Found in Tamil Nadu.
• Western Coast: Mangrove forests also exist near Mumbai city.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Notable site includes the Baratang Island mangroves.

Importance of Mangroves

• Ecological Stabilisation: Mangroves help maintain soil integrity and act as reservoirs for waste assimilation.
• Diversified Habitat: Mangroves provide complex and diverse habitats, creating niches for various organisms.
• Protect Coastal Ecology: They act as water filters and purifiers, reducing sediment flow from rivers and floodplains to the ocean and protecting coral reefs.
• Forest Products: Supply timber, firewood, medicinal plants, and edible plants to local communities.
• Employment: Provide job opportunities, boosting local community livelihoods.
• Shock Absorbers: Reduce the impact of high tides, waves, and protect shorelines from erosion, minimizing cyclone and tsunami damage.
  • Example: The Sundarbans act as a flood barrier for Kolkata, protecting it from cyclones like Cyclone Amphan.
• Carbon Sink: Termed as “best carbon scrubbers” by NASA due to their role in storing more carbon dioxide than most other forests.
• Supporting Biodiversity: Home to diverse species, including some unique to mangroves.
  • Example: The Sundarbans host the largest population of Royal Bengal tigers and over 250 bird species, 120 fish species, and reptiles like saltwater crocodiles.
• Water Purification: Absorb nutrients from runoff, preventing harmful algal blooms offshore.
• Ramsar Site: Bhitarkanika in Odisha is a significant Ramsar Wetland, hosting over 220 bird species and serving as the largest nesting site for Olive Ridley sea turtles.

Threats Faced by Mangroves

• Commercialisation of Coastal Areas: Aquaculture, development, rice, and palm oil farming, along with industrial activities, replace salt-tolerant trees and damage supported ecosystems.
• Temperature Related Issues: A temperature fluctuation of ten degrees over a short period can stress and damage mangrove plants, while freezing temperatures for just a few hours can kill some mangrove species.
• Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion: Rising sea levels, due to global warming, have flooded large mangrove areas, leading to their depletion, which is worsened by continuous sea erosion.
• Reduction in River Water Levels: Mangroves thrive where rivers meet the sea, requiring a balance between saltwater and freshwater. Dams that reduce river water flow disrupt this balance and contribute to mangrove destruction.
• Invasion by Alien Species: Non-native species can threaten endemic species, creating ecological imbalances that deplete mangrove forests.
• Clearing: Mangrove forests are often cleared for agricultural land, human settlements, industrial zones, and shrimp aquaculture, resulting in annual depletion of 2-8%.
• Overharvesting: Mangroves are exploited for firewood, construction materials, charcoal, and animal fodder.
• Damming of Rivers: Dams block the natural flow of water and sediment to mangroves, altering their salinity levels.
• Destruction of Coral Reefs: Coral reefs act as barriers against waves. When destroyed, strong waves can wash away sediments crucial for mangrove growth.
• Pollution: Fertilizers, pesticides, domestic sewage, and industrial waste threaten mangroves when carried by river systems.
• Climate Change: Low rainfall and high air and sea surface temperatures pose severe threats to mangrove survival.
• Shrimp Farms: The expansion of shrimp farms accounts for 35% of overall mangrove forest loss.
• Soil-Related Issues: Unlike most plants, mangrove roots cannot draw oxygen from the soil due to frequent submersion in water up to two times a day.

Conservation of Mangroves

• Blue Carbon Initiative: Focuses on mitigating climate change by conserving and restoring coastal and marine ecosystems.
• Mangroves for the Future Initiative (MFF): A joint IUCN and UNDP initiative promoting investment in coastal ecosystem conservation.
• UNESCO Designated Sites: Recognizes mangroves in Biosphere Reserves, World Heritage sites, and Global Geoparks to enhance their management and conservation.
• International Society for Mangrove Ecosystem (ISME): Established in 1990 to promote mangrove research and advocate for their conservation, sustainable use, and management.
• National Mangrove Committee: The Government of India set up a National Mangrove Committee in 1976 to advise the government on the conservation and development of mangroves.

Forest Protection by Government Officials

• Reserved Forests: Under direct government supervision, these areas are protected under the Forest Rights Act (FRA). Public entry for timber collection or grazing is not allowed unless permitted. Reserved forests make up 54% of the total forest area.
• Protected Forests: Also notified under the FRA, these areas are safeguarded with some degree of public access. People can collect fuelwood, timber, and graze animals without damaging the forest. They constitute 29% of the forest area.
• Unprotected Forests: These areas have no restrictions on tree cutting or cattle grazing and comprise about 18% of the forest area.

Forest Cover and Forest Conservation

• Difference in Recording: The “forest area” refers to land recorded as forest, regardless of the presence of trees, while “forest cover” indicates the area occupied by actual tree canopy.
• National Forest Policy: The government established a nationwide conservation policy in 1952, revised in 1988.
• Objective: The policy emphasizes sustainable forest management to conserve and expand reserves while meeting local needs.
• Goals of the Forest Policy:
  • Achieve 33% forest cover in the geographical area.
  • Maintain environmental stability and restore ecological balance.
  • Preserve the country’s natural heritage and genetic diversity.
  • Prevent soil erosion, desertification, and mitigate floods and droughts.
  • Increase forest cover through afforestation and social forestry.
  • Boost forest productivity to supply timber, fuel, and food.
  • Mobilize a mass movement, especially involving women, to encourage tree planting and reduce tree felling.

Problems of Indian Forestry

• Low Forest Cover: India’s forest cover is 22.5%, below the world average of 35%.
• Less Gregarious: Most Indian forests are not gregarious, complicating their exploitation.
• Misuse of Tribal Rights: Tribals have rights over free grazing and cutting of timber for personal use in about 50% of forest areas, which is often misused.
• Falling of Trees: Primitive and indigenous tree-felling practices damage ecosystems, lead to soil erosion, and hinder forest regeneration.
• Open Grazing: Grazing by cattle, sheep, and goats in hilly and mountainous areas by local people causes significant damage to forests.
• Shifting Cultivation: Common in hilly areas with more than 100 cm rainfall. Population pressure has reduced the traditional jhum cycle to only 5 years in parts of Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, and Tripura, preventing forests from regenerating adequately.
• Growing Demand for Agricultural Land: Population growth over the past 65 years has greatly increased the demand for cereals and raw agricultural materials, leading to the conversion of forested land to farmland.
• Urbanization and Industrialization: Rapid urbanization and industrial growth, especially in hilly regions, contribute to forest degradation. Cities like Shimla, Mussoorie, and Dehradun have expanded significantly over the past 30 years.
• Construction of Multipurpose Projects: Large dams such as Bhakra-Nangal, Rihand, Hirakud, and Tehri have submerged vast forest areas.
• Commercial Activities: Activities like resin extraction, mining, oil extraction, and plantations have led to significant deforestation, further exacerbated by the presence of paper mills and saw factories in forested areas.

FOREST FIRE

Forests are highly vulnerable to fire, with the level of risk varying by vegetation type and climate. Fires can be caused by natural events, human activity, or a combination of both.

Forest Fire in India

1. Forest Fire Prone Areas in India

• Area under Forest: About 21.67% of India’s geographical area (2019) is classified as forest, as per the India State of Forest Report (ISFR).
• Tree Cover: Comprises an additional 2.89% (95,027 sq km).
• High Vulnerability: According to a 2019 FSI analysis, nearly 36% of India’s forests are prone to fires, with 1/3 of these being highly vulnerable.
• Coniferous Forests: Prone to wildfires, especially during winter droughts in the Himalayan region.
• Moist Deciduous Forests: Receive low rainfall and face long dry periods of 5-6 months, making them vulnerable. Found in areas like the foothills of the Himalayas, the Eastern Ghats, and Odisha.
• Monoculture Forestry: Forests with single tree species are at higher risk of fire.
  • Example: Pine forests in Uttarakhand, where 50% of the forest is prone to fires, as per FSI data.
• Tropical Location: India’s tropical climate with substantial sunlight exposure increases the risk of forest fires as land heating intensifies.
• Prolonged Dry Spell: Most of India’s rainfall occurs within a span of three months, leaving the rest of the year dry.

• Example: Forest fires are often reported in March and April when forests are dry and filled with combustible materials like leaves, wood logs, and bushes.

2. Hotspots and Vulnerable Areas

• Most Vulnerable Areas: Historical fire records indicate that forests in the Northeast and central India are highly vulnerable to forest fires.
• Extremely Prone Areas: Forests in Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura fall under the “extremely prone” category.
• Very Highly Prone: States like Andhra Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Odisha, Maharashtra, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh are classified as very highly prone to fires.
• Recent Hotspots: According to the 2020-2021 MoEFCC annual report, Western Maharashtra, Southern Chhattisgarh, and parts of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and central Odisha are increasingly turning into extreme forest fire hotspots.
• Highly and Moderately Prone Areas: These areas collectively account for about 26.2% of India’s forest cover.

Causes of Forest Fire

1. Natural Causes

• High Temperature: High atmospheric temperatures and dry conditions create favorable conditions for forest fires.
• Climate Change: Gradually rising surface temperatures can trigger forest fires.
• Weather Components: Higher temperatures and low humidity can increase vapor pressure deficits, drying out fuels and fostering fire growth.
• Lightning: Many forest fires are ignited by lightning strikes.
• Volcanic Eruptions: Lava from volcanic eruptions can start wildfires when it flows onto nearby vegetation.

2. Anthropogenic Causes (90% of All Wildfires)

• Smoking: Carelessly discarded cigarette butts can ignite wildfires.
• Campfires: Unattended campfires or burning materials during outdoor activities can lead to fires.
• Burning Debris: Slow-burning debris from waste or trash can start wildfires if left unattended.
• Fireworks: Fireworks, often used during festivals, can ignite fires due to their explosive nature.
• Shifting Cultivation: The practice of slash-and-burn cultivation can trigger forest fires.
  • Example: This method is prevalent in the Northeast region of India and parts of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
• Equipment Related: Equipment like machinery used in logging and hunting can cause fires.
• Firearms: Bullets hitting dry vegetation may result in fires.
• Petroleum Products: Leaks from logging equipment can ignite fires when spilled on vegetation.

Why Common in Himalayan Region in India

Causes

• Vegetation: Chir Pine trees shed needles during dry seasons. Once ignited, these dry needles can rapidly spread fire throughout the forest due to wind.
• Natural Causes: Events such as lightning or the friction of dry bamboo can initiate fires.
• Human Activities: People passing through forests, grazing animals, or setting up temporary hearths for cooking can inadvertently start fires.
• Terrain: While not directly causing fires, mountainous terrain makes fire extinguishing difficult, allowing fires to spread uncontrolled.

Difficulties in Controlling Forest Fires

• Difficult Terrain: Forest locality and restricted access make firefighting challenging.
• Outdated Techniques: Most fire dousing still relies on manual methods using blowers. Helicopter services have been used but remain insufficient.
  • Example: The Standing Fire Advisory Committee, NDMA, reported an 80% deficiency in firefighting and rescue vehicles.
• Manpower Shortage: The peak season often sees a lack of staff for dispatching firefighting teams. Mobilizing personnel and resources is difficult, especially in dense forests.
  • Example: Reports indicate that during critical times, firefighting personnel numbers were 96% lower than needed.
• Weather Factors: Wind speed and direction are significant, often spreading fires towards higher elevations and in the direction of prevailing winds.

Concern of Forest Fires

1. Social

• Livelihood Loss: In India, 1.70 lakh villages are close to forests (2011 Census), with many people relying on forests for fuelwood, bamboo, fodder, and timber.
• Loss of Lives: Many fatalities occur due to smoke inhalation and other fire-related causes.
• Large-Scale Migration: Forest fires force communities to migrate, causing desertification, strain on resources, and socio-economic pressure.
• Health Issues Due to Air Pollution: Increased air pollution from fires can cause respiratory issues and severe conditions like lung cancer and skin irritation.

2. Environmental

• Carbon Emission: Forest fires act as a sink, reservoir, and source of carbon, releasing billions of tons of CO2 into the atmosphere.
• Destruction of Animals’ Habitat: Heat from fires destroys animal habitats and reduces soil quality due to compositional changes.
• Soil Degradation: Affects soil moisture and fertility, shrinking forest size. Surviving trees often remain stunted and experience poor growth.
• Loss of Albedo Capacity: Large-scale emission of black carbon from fires can deposit on snow, causing snow to melt and contributing to global warming.
• Impact on Ecosystem Regeneration: Forest fires adversely impact forest cover, soil, vegetation, and the overall ecosystem.
• Air Pollution: Living plants purify air; wildfire smoke contributes to significant air pollution.
• Destruction of Watersheds: Vegetation protects water tables and watersheds. Fires disrupt this protection, affecting water systems like streams and rivers.

3. Economic

• Economic Losses: Reduced availability of forest wood for industries, firewood, and infrastructure can lead to significant economic losses.
  • Example: Forest fires have cost approximately $1.5 billion in GDP according to FSI.

Forest Fire Management Framework in India

1. National Action Plan on Forest Fires (NAPFF) 2018

• Objective: Minimize forest fires by enabling, informing, and empowering forest communities and promoting collaboration with State Forest Departments.
• Reduce Vulnerability: Aimed at reducing forest vulnerability to fires across varied ecosystems.
• Aim: Improve the response capabilities of forest personnel and institutions for effective firefighting and post-fire recovery.

2. Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme

• Motive: Assist states in managing forest fires, replacing the Intensification of Forest Management Scheme (IFMS) in 2017, increasing funds for fire management.
• Fund Allocation: Allocates 90:10 funds for the Northeast and Western Himalayan regions; 60:40 for other states.
• Benefit: States can allocate portions of National Afforestation Programme (NAP) and Mission for Green India (GIM) funding toward forest fire management.

3. Forest Fire Alert System of FSI

• Started: 2004.
• Upgraded Version: Released as version 3.0 (FAST 3.0) in 2019.
• Functionality of Advanced Version: The system now uses satellite information from NASA and ISRO.
• MODIS: Real-time data on fire hotspots is captured using MODIS sensors (1 km by 1 km grid) and electronically transmitted to FSI.

4. India’s Ambitious Policy Goals for Forest Sustainability

• National Mission for Green India: As part of India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change, the government is committed to increasing forest and tree cover.
• Nationally Determined Contribution: India aims to cover 33% of its geographical area with forests and create carbon sinks storing 2.5 to 3 billion tons of CO2 by 2030.

Way Forward

• Capacity Development: Train forest department officials at various levels (national, regional, local) to reduce forest fire vulnerabilities.
• Creating Forest Fire Manuals: Provide guidance for field staff on detecting and reporting forest fires.
• Stakeholder Approach: Establish guidelines and define responsibilities among various stakeholders for systematic forest fire management.
• Mechanism to Monitor Forest Fire Risks: Implement sustainable warning systems to better assess and manage forest fire risks.
• Using Indigenous Knowledge: Leverage traditional techniques to detect and suppress fires.
• Use of Technology: Enhance research-driven technological measures to minimize forest fire occurrences.

Forest fires have surged due to global warming, posing a significant threat to forests. Immediate action is essential, with robust initial responses and consistent follow-up. Emphasis must be placed on research, training, and development.