Biodiversity Conservation in India

Biodiversity Conservation in India

“Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, upliftment, and management of biodiversity in order to derive sustainable benefits for present and future generations.”

Biodiversity conservation leads to the conservation of ecological and genetic diversity, preserving the continuity of food chains. It assures sustainable utilisation of resources and a constant flow of ecosystem services and goods. Conservation is the planned management of natural resources to retain the balance in nature  and diversity. It emphasises the use of natural  resources by accepting the idea of sustainable development. Conservation of biological diversity  leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity to preserve the continuity of food chains.

Recent surveys by WWF and TRAFFIC have  identified 10 of the most widely trafficked animals  in the Golden Triangle. These top 10 animals are:  Tiger, Elephant, Pangolin, Bear, Rhinoceros, Serow, Helmeted Hornbill, Gaur, Leopard, and Turtles.

First serious attempt to protect wildlife and  biodiversity at international level was made in the year 1992 at the first Earth Summit, known as  Rio Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) under the aegis of UN for the protection of Earth and its environment, maintenance of ecological balance and to enrich biodiversity. 

Term “protected area” includes marine protected areas, the boundaries of which will include some areas of ocean, and Transboundary Protected Areas that overlap multiple countries which remove the borders inside the area for conservation and economic purposes.

Biodiversity refers to the variability of life on earth. It can be conserved in the following ways:

• In Situ.
• Ex Situ.

When we conserve and protect the whole ecosystem, its biodiversity at all levels is protected. E.g. We saved the entire forest to save the tiger. This approach is called in-situ (on-site) conservation. However, when an animal or plant is endangered or threatened and needs urgent measures to save it from extinction, ex-situ (off-site) conservation is the desirable approach.

In situ conservation

In-situ conservation is the on-site conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of plant or animal species. In India, ecologically unique and biodiversity-rich regions are legally conserved on-site as biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected forests and nature reserves, each accorded a certain degree of protection.

• Reserved and Protected Forests : Reserved (reserve) forests and protected forests, declared through a notification by the respective state governments, are granted protection under the Indian Forest Act of 1927. Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which in turn may be upgraded to national parks, with each category receiving a higher degree of protection and government funding.

The protected forests and reserved forests differ in one single aspect: rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc., in Reserved Forests are banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise (all activities are prohibited unless permitted). In Protected Forests, such rights are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood from forest resources or products.

In terms of protection, National Parks > Wildlife Sanctuary > Reserved forests > Protected forests.

 Satpura National Park in Madhya Pradesh was the country’s first reserve forest. Typically, reserved forests are often upgraded to the status of wildlife sanctuaries, which in turn may be

upgraded to the status of national parks, with each category receiving a higher degree of protection and government funding.

• Wildlife Sanctuaries or Wildlife Refuges : Wildlife Sanctuaries or wildlife refuges are areas where endangered species are safeguarded from extinction in their natural habitat (home range). They are safe from hunting, predation, or competition. A sanctuary can be promoted to a National Park.

Wildlife Sanctuaries, declared through a notification (no need to pass legislation) by the respective state governments, are granted protection under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The State Government appoints an officer as a collector to determine the extent of the rights of any person. The Chief Wildlife Warden controls, manages and maintains the wildlife sanctuaries.

Certain rights of people living inside the sanctuary could be permitted. Grazing and firewood collection by tribals is allowed but strictly regulated. Settlements are not allowed (but in some wildlife sanctuaries, tribal settlements exist. Constant efforts are made to relocate them).

The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 provided for the declaration of certain areas by the State Government as wildlife sanctuaries if the area was thought to be of adequate ecological, geomorphological and natural significance..Some restricted human activities are allowed inside the Sanctuary area. It can be any area other than area within reserve forest or the territorial waters.

As of December 2020, UT of Andaman & Nicobar Islands (96) has the highest number of Wildlife Sanctuary, followed by Maharashtra (48) and Karnataka (35).

Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary is the only sanctuary situated in Delhi.

Among the North-eastern states, Assam has the highest number of Wildlife sanctuaries.

• Tiger Reserves : The protection status of tiger reserves is the same as wildlife sanctuaries. But they are monitored by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA — constituted under the Wild Life Protection Act of 1972. It is responsible for implementing Project Tiger). The various tiger reserves were created in the country based on the core buffer strategy.

• National Park : National parks, just like wildlife sanctuaries, are declared through a notification by the respective state governments. They are also granted protection under the Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972. The significant difference between a sanctuary and a national park lies in the vesting of rights of people living inside.

Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are permitted. No livestock grazing shall also be permitted inside a National Park, while in a sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control, or prohibit it.Boundaries of wildlife sanctuaries are not specified, while they are clearly defined (demarcated) in the case of national parks by the state governments.

The state government has all the rights of lands to be included in the national parks. But only on the recommendation of the National Board of Wildlife the state legislature can make the changes to the boundaries of national parks and other protected areas (sanctuaries, conservation/community reserves).

The Supreme Court in June 2022 directed that “mining within the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries shall not be permitted”.

• Biosphere Reserve : Biosphere reserves are large areas of protected terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems. UNESCO terms biosphere reserves as ‘learning places for sustainable development’ involving the conservation of wildlife, plant and animal resources and the traditional life of the tribals. A biosphere reserve in India may have one or more national parks or wildlife sanctuaries.

Biosphere Reserves are designated (recognised) under UNESCO’s intergovernmental Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme after the national governments nominate them. They are internationally recognised by UNESCO’s MAB but are administered under the sovereign jurisdiction of countries. Designation of a site as a biosphere reserve does not affect the legal status of the land, forests and regulations for natural resources, and their ownership remains unchanged.

The Indian National Man and Biosphere (IN-MAB) Committee under MoEF identifies and recommends potential sites for designation as biosphere reserves, following UNESCO’s guidelines and criteria. The State Government prepares the Management Action Plan which is approved and monitored by In-MAB. The Government of India provides financial assistance in a 90:10 ratio to the North Eastern states and three Himalayan states and a ratio of 60:40 to other states for maintenance, improvement, and development.

UNESCO’s Criteria for designation :

• A site must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area.
• The core area should sustain viable populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.
• A management authority to ensure the cooperation of local (tribal) communities.

Seville Strategy :

In 1995, after an international conference in Seville, Spain, Seville Strategy for biosphere reserves was adopted. Under the strategy, criteria for biosphere reserves were revised to include the social, cultural, spiritual, and economic needs of society (community-based approach — enhancing the relationship between people and their environments) alongside scientific research.

Core Buffer Strategy :-

1. Core area : It comprises a strictly protected ecosystem for conserving ecosystems, species and genetic variation. In the core or natural zone, human activity is not allowed. A core zone, primarily a national park or sanctuary, is regulated mainly under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972.

2. Buffer zone : Limited human activity is permitted. The zones are used for scientific research, monitoring, training, limited recreation and education.

3. Transition area : Ecologically sustainable human settlements and economic activities (tourism, agriculture, forestry) are permitted in the transition area.

• Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) : ESZs are areas notified by the MoEF around national parks & wildlife sanctuaries. The purpose of the ESZ was to provide more protection to the parks and sanctuaries by acting as a shock absorber or transition zone to minimise forest depletion and human-animal conflict.

The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) of MoEF stipulated that state governments should declare land falling within 10 km of the boundaries of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries as eco-fragile zones or ESZs under the Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986.

The width of the ESZ and the type of regulation may vary from protected area to area. The GOI can also notify areas beyond 10 km as ESZs if they hold larger ecologically important “sensitive corridors”.

The Supreme Court in June 2022 directed that every protected forest, national park, and wildlife sanctuary across the country should have a mandatory eco-sensitive zone (ESZ) of a minimum of one km starting from their demarcated boundaries.

ESZ areas are based on the core and buffer model of management. The core area has the legal status of being a national park. The buffer area, however, does not have the legal status of being a national park and could be a reserved forest, wildlife sanctuary or tiger reserve.

Legal Status

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does not mention the word “Eco–Sensitive Zones”. The act only states that GOI can restrict areas in which any industries, operations, or processes shall or shall not be carried out subject to certain safeguards. Besides, the Environment Rules, 1986 also states that GOI can prohibit or restrict the location of industries. The government has effectively used these two rules to declare ESZs or EFAs.

Activities Prohibited/Restricted/Allowed in ESZs :

Prohibited: commercial mining, setting of sawmills and industries causing pollution, commercial use of firewood & major hydropower projects are prohibited in ESZ areas. It also bans tourism activities like flying over protected areas in an aircraft or hot air balloon and discharge of effluents and solid waste in water bodies or terrestrial areas.

Regulated: felling of trees, drastic change in agriculture systems and commercial use of natural water resources, including groundwater and setting up of hotels and resorts are the activities regulated in the areas.

Permitted: ongoing agriculture and horticulture practices by local communities, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, adoption of green technology and use of renewables.

• Conservation Reserves : A State Government can declare Conservation Reserves in any area owned by it, particularly those adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those that link one protected area with another. Such a declaration should be made after consultations with the local communities.

It is an area owned by the State Government adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries for protecting landscape, seascape and habitat of fauna and flora. They typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India.

Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are uninhabited and completely owned by the GOI but used for subsistence by communities and community areas if part of the lands are privately owned.

The State Government may, after having consultations with the local communities, declare

any area owned by the Government as a conservation reserve. It is managed through a Conservation Reserve Management Committee. The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected.

These protected area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2003. The amendment provided for a mechanism to provide recognition and legal backing to the community-initiated efforts in wildlife protection without compromising the community’s needs.

In 2005, Tiruppadaimarathur Conservation Reserve in Tamil Nadu was declared country’ first conservation reserve.

• Community Reserves : The State Government can declare Community Reserves in any private or community land where an individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Such land should not be within a National Park, Sanctuary or Conservation Reserve. The rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve and Community Reserve are not affected.

State Government may notify any community land or private land as a community reserve, provided that the members of the community or individuals concerned are agreeable to offer such areas for protecting the fauna and flora, as well as their traditions, cultures and practices.

The Reserve is managed through a Community Reserve Management Committee. Without a resolution passed by the Management Committee and approval of the same by the State Government no change in land use pattern can be made. The rights of people living inside a Community Reserve are not affected.

Kokkare-Bellur (2007) in Karnataka was declared India’s first Community Reserve. As per the National Wildlife Database, Jan. 2023, there are 220 existing Community Reserves in India covering an area of 1455.16 km2, which is 0.04% of the geographical area of the country. Nagaland has the most number (114) of community reserves in India.

• Sacred Groves : Sacred groves are tracts of forests preserved by ancient societies on religious and cultural grounds. All the trees and wildlife within were venerated and protected by the communities. Such sacred groves are found in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, the Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, the Western Ghats of Karnataka, and Maharashtra, the Chanda and Bastar areas of Chhattisgarh.

Sacred Groves were notified under Wildlife (Protection), Amendment Act, 2002 as patches of forests or natural vegetation, few trees or forests of several acres that are usually dedicated to local folk deities (protected by local communities).

The degree of sanctity of the sacred forests varies from one grove to another. People believe any kind of disturbances would offend the local deity and thereby causing natural calamities, diseases of crops. Traditional Grove – The grove where a village deity resides, who is represented by an elementary symbol. Temple Grove – The grove which is created around a temple Groves around the burial or cremation grounds.

Sacred groves are ecologically significant as they help in conservation of biodiversity, recharge of aquifers, soil conservation through vegetation cover. Diminishing traditional belief systems, rapid urbanisation and development, Sanskritization, Invasion by exotic weeds (such as Lantana camara, Prosopis juliflora), Increasing livestock and fuelwood collection are serious threats that Sacred Groves face today.

Ex-situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered species in artificial ecosystems such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. There is less competition for food, water and space among the organisms. Ex-situ conservation has the following advantages:

1. The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity.
2. The species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild.
3. Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered species.

Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation : Following are the important strategies for biodiversity conservation:

1. All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes and agricultural animals should be conserved.
2. All the economically important organisms should be identified and conserved.
3. Unique ecosystems should be preserved first.
4. The resources should be utilised efficiently.
5. Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented.
6. The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully.
7. The levels of pollutants should be reduced in the environment.
8. Deforestation should be strictly prohibited.
9. Environmental laws should be followed strictly.
10. The useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be conserved in their nature as well as artificial habitats.
11. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity conservation and its importance.

National efforts for biodiversity protection : Constitutional provisions : There are few provisions in Indian constitution which directly or indirectly call for biodiversity conservation:

1. Article 21 (Right to life and personal liberty) The Supreme Court on many occasions has interpreted this fundamental right to encompass within its ambit the protection and preservation of environment.

2. Article 48 A directs the state to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife.

3. Article 51A(g) makes it a duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests,lakes,rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.

4. In 1976, forests were included in List III (Concurrent List) under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution.