Species and their Conservation

Species and their Conservation

 

TIGER

IUCN: Endangered  ; WPA: Scheduled A  part 1 ; CITES: Appendix 1

Tigers are the largest cat species and are both Flagship species and Umbrella species. 70% of Tigers are found in India. 54 Tigers reserves in India. International tiger day 29 th July 2020. 

Tiger Conservation and Project Tiger :

Since the early 1900s, the global population of Tigers (EN) fell from around 100,000 to fewer than 4,000. Indian tiger numbers had hit an all-time low of 1,411 in 2006. The tigers from the Sariska reserve in Rajasthan had all disappeared. Serious conservation efforts by India after 2006 led to a steady increase in the tiger population.

There are eight subspecies of tiger. Among the eight, at present, five subspecies are present in the wild. They are Bengal, South China, Indochinese, Sumatran, and Siberian. Three subspecies of tiger — Caspian, Bali, and Javan — are extinct.

Challenges to Tiger Conservation :

• Pressure on habitat, Habitat fragmentation and Habitat destruction: Caused due to large-scale development projects such as dams, industry, mines, railway lines etc.
• Invasive species: They destroy the local producers. This has a cascading effect on the food chain. Tigers are the worst hit as they are at the top of the food chain. (Tigers represent an “Umbrella Species” that indicate the health of the ecosystem.)
• Poaching and Wildlife Crime Control: Poaching and wildlife crime continue to be major concerns, with poaching remaining a significant issue. Tigers are killed so their body parts can be used for Traditional Chinese Medicine.
• Demand Elimination: Eliminating demand for tiger products remains a significant hurdle.
• Rebuilding Tiger Populations: It remains a tough task, and countries except India, Nepal and Russia have struggled to rebuild their dwindling tiger populations.

 Canine Distemper Virus (CDV)

Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) can be transmitted to wildlife from CDV-infected dogs living in and around wildlife sanctuaries. Is a contagious disease that attacks the respiratory, gastrointestinal and nervous systems of puppies and dogs. In 2018, over 20 lions from the Gir forest succumbed to the viral infection.

Prevention is better than cure : Managing any disease in a wildlife population is extremely difficult. The main aim should be to vaccinate the free-ranging and domestic dogs in the area around NPs.

 Measures Taken by GOI :

• Legal : Amendment of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to Wild Life (Protection) Act, 2006 for constituting the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and the Tiger and Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau (Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB)). Enhancement of punishment in cases of offence relating to a tiger reserve or its core area.

• Administrative : Strengthening of anti poaching activities, including special strategy for monsoon patrolling. State-level Steering Committees under the Chairmanship of Chief Ministers and establishment of Tiger Conservation Foundation. Creation of Special Tiger Protection Force (STPF).

• Financial : Financial and technical help is provided to the States under various Centrally Sponsored Schemes, viz. Project Tiger and Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats.

 3-pronged strategy to manage negative interactions :

• Material and logistical support: Funding support is provided through the ongoing Project Tiger.
• Restricting habitat interventions: Based on the carrying capacity of tigers in a tiger reserve, habitat interventions are restricted. The habitat interventions are kept limited to minimise man/animal conflict.
• Standard Operating Procedure (SOPs): The NTCA has issued SOPs to deal with man/animal conflict.

International Cooperation :

• India has a bilateral understanding with Nepal on controlling trans-boundary illegal trade in wildlife.
• India has signed protocols on tiger conservation with Bangladesh and China.
• A sub-group on tiger/leopard conservation has been constituted for cooperation with Russia.
• A Global Tiger Forum of Tiger Range Countries has been created for addressing international issues related to tiger conservation
• India is a party to CITES. CITES’s landmark decision states that ‘tigers should not be bred for trade in their parts and derivatives.

Global Tiger Forum (GTF) : Established in 1994, the GTF has its headquarters in New Delhi. The General Assembly of GTF meets after every three years. It was set up to promote a worldwide campaign to save the tiger, its prey and its habitat.

Members of GTF : The GTF is an international organisation promoting the conservation of wild tigers and their habitats. The forum is composed of the following representatives. The Global Tiger Forum (GTF) comprises representatives from all 13 tiger range countries. This includes:  Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam. 

The government of the United Kingdom has officially joined the GTF as a non-tiger range nation. The GTF also includes various international organisations as its members. This includes: 

• the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 
• the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and 
• the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS). 

 

Project Tiger (PT)

The Indian tiger population at the end of the 20th century was estimated at 20,000 to 40,000 individuals. The first country-wide tiger census conducted in 1972 estimated the population to comprise a little more than 1,800 individuals, an alarming reduction in tiger population.

In 1973, with an aim to protect tigers from extinction by ensuring a viable population in their natural habitats, Project Tiger was launched in Jim Corbett National Park of Uttarakhand, and various tiger reserves were created since then based on a core-buffer strategy.

All the tiger reserves are governed by the Project Tiger (1973), a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of MoEF, administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority. It funds relocation of villagers to minimise human-tiger conflicts. Tiger Protection Force was set up under Project Tiger to combat poachers.

Tiger Task Force : The implementation of Project Tiger over the years has highlighted the need for a statutory authority with the legal backing to ensure tiger conservation. On the basis of the recommendations of the National Board for Wild Life, a Task Force was set up to look into the problems of tiger conservation in the country. The recommendations of the Task Force include strengthening Project Tiger by giving it statutory and administrative powers.

National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)

The Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006 provides for creating:

• National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA – a statutory body under MoEF) and
• Tiger and Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau (Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB – a statutory body under MoEF)).
• NTCA administers Project Tiger. Tiger reserves in India are administered by field directors in accordance with the guidelines of NTCA.
• No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger reserve shall be made except on a recommendation of the NTCA and the approval of the National Board for Wild Life.
• No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, except in public interest with the approval of the NTCA and National Board for Wild Life.

 

NTCA members

1. NTCA was set up under the Chairmanship of the Minister for Environment and Forests.
2. The Authority will have : Eight experts having qualifications in wildlife conservation and welfare tribals, 3 MPs, The Inspector-General of Forests, in charge of project Tiger, will be ex-officio Member and others.

Functions of NTCA

• The Authority lays down standards, guidelines for tiger conservation in the Tiger Reserves, National Parks and Sanctuaries.
• It would be required to prepare an Annual Report, which would be laid in the Parliament along with the Audit Report.

Mandates to the states

• State level Steering Committees will be set up in the Tiger States under the Chairmanship of respective Chief Ministers. This has been done with a view for ensuring coordination, monitoring and protection of tigers in the States.
• A provision has been made for the State Governments to prepare a Tiger Conservation Plan and establish a Tiger Conservation Foundation based on the good practices emanating from some tiger reserves.

Challenges

• The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 recognizes the rights of some forest dwelling communities in forest areas. This has led to controversy over the implications of such recognition for Project Tiger.
• Under the current green cover, habitats reach tiger-saturation points far too early (the existing habitats cannot accommodate more tigers).

Tiger Corridors :  NTCA, in collaboration with the Wildlife Institute of India, has published a document titled “Connecting Tiger Populations for Long/term Conservation”. The document has mapped out 32 major corridors across the country.

Core and Buffer Zones in Tiger Reserves

The protection status of tiger reserves is the same as wildlife sanctuaries, but they are monitored by NTCA.

Core area :  The core areas are notified by the State Government in consultation with an Expert Committee (constituted for that purpose). They are freed of all human activities (but some tribes continue to live in the core area (illegally). However, they do not possess any forest rights). A core area has the legal status of a national park or wildlife sanctuary. Collection of minor forest produce, grazing, and other human disturbances are not allowed.

• The Soligas of Karnataka’s Chamarajanagar district created history by becoming the first tribal community living in the core area of a tiger reserve to get their forest rights recognized (a very rare and exceptional case).
• Soligas inhabit the peripheral forest areas of Biligiri Rangana and Male Mahadeshwara Their forest rights were recognized by the courts as they lived in the area in harmony with nature for hundreds of years, and their way of living was not causing any harm to the tiger population.
• In 1974, BR Hills (including Biligiri Ranganatha Swamy Temple) area was declared as BRT Wildlife Sanctuary. The government evicted many Soligas and relocated them to nearby plains. In 2011, the sanctuary was declared a tiger reserve, and the forest officials restricted access and collection of non-timber forest produce.

 

Buffer areas : The buffer zone is the area peripheral to the critical tiger habitat or core area providing supplementary habitat for dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for co-existence of human activity (tribals). The limits of such areas are determined with the concerned Gram Sabha and an Expert Committee constituted for the purpose.

The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 recognizes the rights of some forest dwelling communities in buffer areas. Collection of minor forest produce and grazing by tribals is allowed on a sustainable basis.

Tiger Census : The process of estimating the number of tigers in each area is called ‘Tiger census’. Tiger Census Report is a four-yearly report. It is carried out by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII — autonomous institution under the MoEF) and the NTCA.

The 2014 tiger census had resulted in the first-ever estimate of India’s leopard population (11,000).

Estimation of Tiger Populations :

The most used technique in Tiger Census in the past was ‘Pugmark Census Technique’. In this method, the imprints of the pugmark of the tiger were recorded and used as a basis for the identification of individuals (and their sex). Now it is largely used as one of the indices of tiger occurrence and relative abundance.

Recent methods used to estimate the numbers of tigers are camera trapping and DNA fingerprinting. In camera trapping, the photograph of the tiger is taken, and individuals are differentiated based on the stripes on the body. In the latest technique of DNA fingerprinting, tigers can be identified from their scats (faeces).

2018 Census Methodology  : The census methodology is based on double sampling (based on ground-based surveys and actual images captured on camera-traps). It was introduced in 2006 as the pugmark surveys were found to be inaccurate.

In the 2018 census, 83% of the big cats censused were individually photographed using camera traps. In Phases 1 and 2, ground-based surveys were carried out by Forest Department officials to collect signs of tiger presence like scat and pugmarks.

In phase 3, the information was plotted on the forest map prepared with remote-sensing and GIS (MSTrIPES). In the last phase, data were extrapolated to areas where cameras could not be deployed.

MSTrIPES – Technology in Wildlife Conservation

MSTrIPES (Monitoring system for Tigers – Intensive Protection and Ecological Status) was launched across Indian tiger reserves by NTCA and WII in 2010. It is a software-based monitoring system, designed to assist wildlife protection.

The system consists of two components :

• Field based protocols for patrolling, law enforcement, recording wildlife crimes and ecological monitoring,
• A customised GIS software for storage, retrieval, analysis, and reporting.

Under MSTrIPES, forest guards are expected to record their tracks using a GPS, in addition to recording observations in site-specific data sheets and uploading geo-tagged pictures into the central GIS database.

Advantage of MSTrIPES :

• MSTrIPES will help identify shortcomings in patrolling efforts in real-time. It acts as proof of the presence and patrolling of forest guards in a particular area.

 

2018 Tiger Census Report (All-India Tiger Estimate)

The 2018 census is the fourth cycle of the tiger census based on double sampling. The first was conducted in 2006, second in 2010 and third in 2014. The All-India Tiger Estimate 2022 will be published in mid-2023.

India’s five tiger landscapes are :

1. Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains,
2. Central Indian Landscape and Eastern Ghats,
3. Western Ghats, North-East Hills and
4. Brahmaputra Plains, and
5. The Sundarbans

Important Observations from 2018 tiger census

1. Madhya Pradesh (526) has the highest tiger population.
2. Karnataka (524) has the second-highest tiger population.
3. Uttarakhand (442) has the third-highest tiger population.
4. Among the NE states, Assam (190) has the highest tiger population.
5. Tiger population fell in Chhattisgarh and Mizoram.
6. There is no change in the tiger population in Odisha.

 

Other Important observations :

 Region                                                                Tiger Population (2014)

1. Western Ghats 776
2. Central Indian Landscape and Eastern Ghats 688
3. Shivalik Gangetic Plain 485

          India                                                                              2226

 

Region                                                                             Tiger Population (2018)

1. Central Indian Landscape and Eastern Ghats 1033
2. Western Ghats 981
3. Shivalik Gangetic Plain 646

            India                                                                              2967

India is home to 70% of the world’s tiger population. It has 2,967 tigers, a rise of 33% over the figure found in the previous census of 2014 (2,226). This is by far the biggest increase in terms of both numbers and percentage since the capture-mark-recapture method began in 2006 (1,411). India achieved the goal of doubling the tiger numbers in 2018, four years before the targeted year 2022. 

St. Petersburg Declaration: 13 tiger home range countries agreed to the Global Tiger Recovery Program that aimed to double the global tiger population by 2022.

• MP saw the highest increase — 218 individuals (71%).
• Maharashtra saw a 64% jump (190 to 312).
• Uttarakhand has gained over 100 tigers (340 to 442).
• Corbett TR recorded the highest number of tigers (266).
• In terms of population and density:
• Corbett TR (266) > 2) Nagarahole TR (127) > 3) Bandipur (126) > 4) Bandhavgarh (104) > 5) Kaziranga (104)
• Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu registered the “maximum improvement” since 2014.
• In Buxa, Dampa and Palamau, which are tiger reserves, no trace of the animal was found. The report does not contain the numbers of other predators like leopards.

 

Measures that led to the increase in Tiger Population :

• Wireless communication systems and outstation patrol camps have been developed within the tiger reserves, due to which poaching has declined considerably.
• Many states deployed special tiger forces to combat organised poachers.
• Relocation of villages away from tiger reserves: ₹10 lakh was provided per family that moved out of critical habitat.
• From 28 in 2006, the number of tiger reserves went up to 53 in 2023.

 

International Efforts towards Tiger  

The Global Tiger Initiative : GTI was launched in 2008 as a global alliance of governments, NGOs, civil society, and scientific communities with the aim of working together to save wild tigers from extinction. In 2013, the scope was broadened to include Snow Leopards (VU). GTI is led by the 13 tiger range countries.

The GTI’s founding partners included:

1. The World Bank,
2. The Global Environment Facility (GEF),
3. The Smithsonian Institution (world’s largest museum, education, and research complex), Save the Tiger Fund (from 1995 to 2011, it supported tiger conservation projects in Asia),
4. International Tiger Coalition (representing more than 40 non-government organisations).

St. Petersburg Declaration :

In 2010, leaders of the tiger range countries (TRCs) assembled at an International Tiger Forum in St. Petersburg, Russia, to adopt the St. Petersburg Declaration on Tiger Conservation and endorsed its implementation mechanism, called the Global Tiger Recovery Program. Their overarching goal was to double the number of wild tigers (TX2) across their geographical area from about 3,200 to more than 7,000 by 2022.

2015. Successes: India, Nepal, and Russia have shown that tiger recovery is possible, despite challenges in funding and sustaining community livelihoods. In India, Tiger Population in India increased from 1706 in 2010 to 2226 in 2015.
2016. Failures: According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), there are only around 3,900 tigers remaining in the wild across the globe. In SE Asia, the tiger numbers kept dwindling.

 

International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime :

The International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime (ICCWC) was established in 2010 in St. Petersburg at the Tiger Forum Meeting. It aims to strengthen criminal justice systems and provide coordinated support at the national, regional and international levels to combat wildlife crime. Partner agencies to ICCWC are CITES Secretariat, INTERPOL, United Nations on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Office World Bank and World Customs Organization (WCO).

 TX2 and Tiger Conservation Excellence Award :

TX2 Award and Tiger Conservation Excellence Award are awarded to sites that are contributing towards achieving the TX2 (Tigers times two) goal — to double the population of wild tigers by 2022. India is party to the TX2 agreement of World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Pilibhit Tiger Reserve won the inaugural 2020 TX2 Award.

Conservation Assured | Tiger Standards (CA|TS or CATS) :

CA|TS is a set of criteria which allows tiger sites to check if their management will lead to successful tiger conservation. Officially launched in 2013, CA|TS is an important part of the TX2 goal. WWF is helping tiger range countries to implement CA|TS. 17 Tiger Reserves in India have CA|TS international accreditation.

 

Tiger Conservation Excellence Award : Conservation Excellence Award recognizes one site that has achieved excellence in at least 2/5 themes:

1. Tiger and prey population monitoring (tiger translocation/prey augmentation)
2. Effective site management (CA|TS assessments)
3. Enhanced Law Enforcement
4. Community based conservation and Human-Wildlife conflict mitigation
5. Habitat and prey management

The Transboundary Manas Conservation Area (India-Bhutan border) has received the Conservation Excellence Award for 2020. Transboundary Manas Conservation Area comprises of :

1. The 500 km2 Manas National Park in Assam and
2. The 1,057 km2 Royal Manas National Park in Bhutan.

SNOW LEOPARD / GHOST OF MOUNTAINS

Native to mountain ranges of central and South Asia,it is found along the upper reaches of Himalayas at elevations between 3000-4000m. In India it is found in Ladakh,Kashmir,Himachal Pradesh,Uttarakhand,Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.

Hemis (Ladakh) is also known as the snow leopard capital of the world

India has identified three landscapes namely

1. Hemis- Spiti across Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh
2. Nanda Devi – Gangotri in Uttarakhand
3. Khangchendzonga – Tawang across Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh

Globally, it is found in 12 countries of South Asia and Central Asia- India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.

Conservation Status: IUCN:Vulnerable ;  WPA:Schedule 1 (part 1) i  CITES:Appendix 1 ; Convention on Migratory species (Appendix 1)

 Programs by Governments of India to protect Snow Leopard :

Secure Himalayas( launched in 2017)

The “Secure Himalaya” project aimed to maintain snow leopard habitats while also improving the ecosystem of Himalayan ranges and the lives of mountain populations, all of which are among the hardest affected by climate change.

It covers the high Himalayan Ecosystem spread over Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. This project is a collaboration between the Environment, Forests and Climate Change Ministry (MoEFCC) and the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). It is funded by the Global Environment Facility.

The project was launched in the background of increasing habitat degradation, fragmentation of area which is increasing due to the high dependence of the local communities on the natural resources and unplanned infrastructure.

Project Implementation – Specific Landscapes

• Kanchenjunga – Upper Teesta Valley in Sikkim
• Gangotri – Govind and Darma – Byans Valley in Pithoragarh in Uttarakhand
• Lahaul – Pangi and Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh
• Changthang in Jammu and Kashmir

SECURE Himalayas – Main Features: SECURE Himalayas project is spread over 6 years.

The objective of the project is to secure people’s livelihood, restore, conserve and use sustainably the high range ecosystems of the Himalayas.

The key focus of the project is on improving the enforcement to ensure the reduction in wildlife crime, protection of snow leopard and other endangered species and ensuring a secure livelihood to the people in the region.

Protecting the people’s livelihood has taken topmost importance under the SECURE Himalaya since the relative remoteness and isolation of the communities in the mountains (which includes tribal communities) has rendered them the last preservers of their heterogeneous culture and local knowledge that has a global impact.

Stringent monitoring and better enforcement measures will be taken to inhibit the illegal trade in medicinal and aromatic plants in these parts. These plant species are especially vulnerable since they are threatened species.

Project Snow leopard

The Project Snow Leopard is an Indian initiative launched by MoEF&CC for strengthening wildlife conservation in the Himalayan high altitudes.

It was launched in 2009 in 5 states of the country namely J&K, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand to promote an inclusive and participatory approach to conserving snow leopards and their habitat.

Goal: To safeguard and conserve India’s unique natural heritage of high-altitude wildlife populations and their habitats by promoting conservation through participatory policies and actions. It aims to promote a knowledge-based and adaptive conservation framework that fully involves the local communities, who share the snow leopard’s range, in conservation efforts.

Project Snow Leopard is designed for all biologically important habitats within the snow leopard’s range, irrespective of their ownership (e.g. Protected Areas, common land, etc.)

Himal Sanrakshak:

It is a community volunteer programme, to protect snow leopards, launched in October 2020.

Snow leopard conservation breeding program

The Government of India has identified the snow leopard as a flagship species for the high-altitude Himalayas. India has identified three large landscapes, namely, Hemis-Spiti across Ladakh and Himachal Pradesh; Nanda Devi – Gangotri in Uttarakhand; and Khangchendzonga – Tawang across Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.

Snow Leopard is on the list of 22 critically endangered species for the recovery programme of the Ministry of Environment Forest & Climate Change. The Snow Leopard conservation breeding programme is undertaken at Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park, Darjeeling, West Bengal.

International Efforts :

1. International snow leopards day 23 October : Adoption of Bishkek declaration by 12 countries in 2012.

2.Global snow leopard & ecosystem protection program

The Bishkek Declaration, which established the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection (GSLEP) Program in 2013, set a target of safeguarding at least 20 snow leopard landscapes with sustainable snow leopard populations by 2020. Since then, the 23rd of October has been designated as International Snow Leopard Day.

The GSLEP is a high-level inter-governmental partnership that includes all 12 snow leopard territory nations. India, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Russia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are among the nations that have snow leopards. It emphasises the importance of raising awareness and knowledge of the Snow Leopard’s ecological importance.

GSLEP 2019 was hosted by the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change in New Delhi. The GSLEP Steering Committee is currently being chaired by Nepal and co-chaired by Kyrgyzstan. It seeks to address high mountain development issues.

3. Living Himalaya Network Initiativeis established as one of WWF’s global initiatives to bring about transformational conservation impact across the three Eastern Himalayan countries of Bhutan, India (North-East), and Nepal.

Objectives of LHI include adapting to climate change, connecting to habitat, and saving iconic species.

Reintroduction of Cheetahs in India

Bringing Back Cheetahs: A Boon to the Ecosystem

Besides conserving the big cat, the initiative in itself is a boon to the ecosystem. Cheetahs live in open plains; their habitat is predominantly where their preys live – grasslands, scrubs and open forest systems, semi-arid environments and temperatures that tend to be hotter compared to cooler regimes.

In saving cheetahs, one would have to save not only its prey-base comprising certain threatened species, but also other endangered species of the grasslands and open forest ecosystems, some of which are on the brink of extinction.

It is also observed that among large carnivores, conflict with human interests is lowest for Cheetahs. They are not a threat to humans and do not attack large livestock either.

Over 70 years after they went extinct, eight cheetahs (five females and three males) from Namibia were reintroduced in India on an experimental basis. Spread over 748 km2 , Kuno Palpur National Park in MP is their new home. This is the world’s first intercontinental translocation of a carnivore. It is unique because, for the first-time cheetahs will be reintroduced in an unfenced protected area (PA).

In South Africa, all PAs that support large predator populations are fully fenced to reduce human-wildlife conflict. This is called ‘fortress conservation’. Social scientists criticise it as it barred neighbouring communities from using natural resources within these PAs.

In India, PAs are not fenced rather they are surrounded by buffer zones (neutral zones) that allow neighbouring communities to utilise natural resources within these PAs. This coexistence approach is considered more favourable by social scientists.

Cheetahs can help restore open forest and grassland ecosystems in India. The success of this batch of animals will be the touchstone of India’s initiative to be home to four wildcats — the tiger, lion, leopard, and cheetah.

The Government has constituted a Task Force for monitoring cheetah introduction. The task force will be in force for a period of two years. It will monitor the health status of cheetahs, upkeep of the quarantine enclosures, and open cheetah habitat for eco-tourism and suggest and advise on developing tourism infrastructure in the fringe areas of Kuno National Park and other protected areas.

The Cheetah Reintroduction Project in India formally commenced on September 17, 2022, with the objective of restoring the population of cheetahs, which were declared extinct in the country in 1952.

Why Kuno NP? Cheetahs do not prey on humans or attack large livestock. Space is the most important consideration. Barring high altitudes, coasts and the northeast region, a large part of India is considered a cheetah habitat. However, Kuno was chosen as the most preferred habitat based on the assessment carried out by the Wildlife Institute of India and Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) based on climatic variables, prey densities, the population of competing predators, and the historical range.

• No human settlements: There has been a complete relocation of roughly 24 villages and their domesticated livestock from inside the park years ago.
• Savannah habitat: The village sites and agricultural fields have now been taken over by grasses.
• Range: The region is very close to the Sal forests of Chhattisgarh, the historical range of the cheetah.
• Scope for coexistence: Kuno offers the prospect of housing all four large felines in India — tiger, lion, leopard and cheetah. (Kuno was initially proposed to provide a second home for the lions).

 

The other sites recommended for holding and conservation breeding of cheetah in India, in controlled wild conditions are:

1. Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary (1,197 sq. km, habitat 5,500 sq.km), Madhya Pradesh
2. Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary – Bhainsrorgarh Wildlife Sanctuary complex (~2500 sq.km), Madhya Pradesh
3. Shahgarh bulge in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan (4,220 sq.km)
4. Mukundara Tiger Reserve as fenced enclosure (~80 sq.km), Rajasthan

Kuno National Park Kuno National Park is a national park in the Sheopur district of MP established in 1981 as a wildlife sanctuary. In 2018, it was given the status of a national park. It is part of the Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests. Kuno National Park has spread over an area of 748.76 sq. km. One of the main tributaries of the Chambal River, the Kuno River, cuts across the whole length of the National Park division. Wildlife Institute of India and Wildlife Trust of India had shortlisted Palpur-Kuno park as a habitat for Cheetahs and Asiatic lionsCheetahs which once roamed in the northern plains of India became extinct in India in 1948.   The Kuno has the potential to carry populations of all four of India’s big cats. The tiger, the leopard, the Asiatic lion, and also the cheetah all four of which have coexisted within the same habitats. Historically before they were exhausted by overhunting and habitat destruction.   Currently, the leopard and striped hyena are the only larger carnivores within the Kuno National Park, the single lone tiger T-38 having returned to Ranthambore earlier this year (2021).

 

Concerns :

• The forest has a significant population of leopards. This remains a concern as the much-stronger leopard has an advantage over the slender cheetah, whose strength mainly lies in its blazingly fast speed.
• Leopards are also believed to have more adaptive potential and a wider habitat (forests and grasslands) than the cheetah (grasslands – open spaces are critical for survival).

 

ASIATIC LION

The Asiatic Lion (also known as the Persian Lion or Indian Lion) is a member of the Panthera Leo Leo subspecies that is restricted to India. Its previous habitats consisted of West Asia and the Middle East before it became extinct in these regions.

The Asiatic Lion is one of the five pantherine cats native to India. The others being: the Bengal Tiger, the Indian Leopard, Snow Leopard and the Clouded Leopard.

Where are they found ?  Today their range is restricted to the Gir National Park in Gujarat.

Gir protected area network : The last census in the year 2015 showed the population of 523 Asiatic Lions in Gir Protected Area Network of 1648.79 sq. km. that includes Gir National Park, Gir Sanctuary, Pania Sanctuary, Mitiyala Sanctuary adjoining reserved forests, Protected Forests, and Unclassed Forests.

Behaviour & Features of Asiatic Lion :

Male Asiatic lions create loose pride (group) by banding together with up to three females despite their natural tendency to live alone. Lions in couples mark their territory and engage in behaviours including hunting, resting, and feeding together. The character and structure of the pride formed by females, which can contain up to 12 lionesses and their pups, is significantly stronger. Large carcasses are occasionally shared by the female pride with their male counterparts but rarely vice versa. The mating season is the only time that male and female lion pride interact with one another. Male pride forms alliances and protects the areas where one or more female pride are located.

Conservation status: IUCN: Endangered ; WPA: Scheduled 1 ; CITES: Appendix 1

Conservation of Asiatic Lion:

In 1910, the Nawab of Junagadh banned lion hunting in his province to conserve Asiatic lions. Gir Forest was declared a National Park and Sanctuary in the 1960s-70s. This was meant to ensure the protection of the only remaining habitat for Indian lions. The Kuno Project aims to ease overpopulation in Gir. It aimed to translocate excess lions to Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.

Conflict with people living near the sanctuary is a major threat faced by Indian lions. Relocating people from Gir’s protected area can reduce human-lion conflict. Consolidating the park boundaries can also help.Involving locals in lion conservation efforts and awareness programs will help protect the species.Preventing poaching continues to be a major challenge for lion survival.

Gir National Park’s natural environment needs to be conserved. Avoiding afforestation that affects grasslands and savannahs is crucial. World Lion Day is observed on August 10 every year to raise awareness about lion conservation. The Indian government launched the Asiatic Lion Conservation Project in 2018.

The aim is to protect and conserve the only free population of Asiatic lions in the world. The project will strengthen the ongoing measures for conservation and recovery of Asiatic Lion with the help of state-of-the –art techniques/ instruments, regular scientific research studies, disease management, Modern surveillance/ patrolling techniques. The project also focuses on protecting the ecosystem that supports the lion population.

Project Lion was launched in 2020. It aims to conserve Asiatic lions using habitat creation, technology, research, and veterinary care. It will also offer livelihoods to local communities.

Six additional sites have been identified along with Kuno-Palpur Sanctuary under Project Lion. The six additional sites are as follows:

• Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan.
• Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan.
• Mukundra Hills Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan.
• Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh.
• Madhav National Park, Madhya Pradesh.
• Jessore-Balaram Ambaji WLS and adjoining landscape, Gujarat.

Issue of relocation of Lions:

What is the Aim of the Translocation Project?

The aim of this project is to safeguard the lion population from potential extinction due to diseases or environmental threats such as natural disasters or habitat loss. The translocation of the lions will also prepare the sanctuary for future natural dispersal, which is essential for the long-term survival of the species. In addition, the project will also breed herbivores in the sanctuary, which will increase the availability of prey for the lions and thus, contribute to the growth of the lion population in the area.

The state government of Gujarat has given in-principle approval to the project, which is expected to be completed in a phased manner. The first phase will involve the preparation of the Barda Wildlife Sanctuary, which will include the construction of new enclosures, fencing, and the creation of water sources. Once the sanctuary is ready, the lions will be gradually introduced to the area over a period of time.

What are the Challenges and Concerns?

Although the translocation project is a commendable effort to protect the lion population, it is not without its challenges and concerns. A 2014 report by the Wildlife Institute of India has raised concerns that the Barda sanctuary can only hold 26 lions, which is not enough for the proposed translocation of 40 lions. This raises questions about the feasibility of the project and the potential risks to the lion population in the sanctuary.

Another concern is the potential for conflict between the lions and the local communities living in and around the sanctuary. Human-lion conflict is a major issue in Gujarat, with incidents of lion attacks on humans and livestock being reported frequently. The translocation of the lions to the Barda sanctuary may exacerbate this conflict, unless effective measures are taken to mitigate the risk.

Threats :

• Poaching
• Habitat fragmentation
• Lions die by falling into the unguarded wells around the Gir Protected Area.
• The threat of genetic inbreeding arises from a single population in one place.

ELEPHANTS

Largest terrestrial mammal of India. National heritage animal of India.

IUCN:Endangered  ; WPA:Schedule 1 ; CITES:Appendix 1

Population: Karnataka (6049) > Assam(5719) > Kerala (3054)

Conservation of Elephants

 More than 60 per cent of the Asian elephant population is in India. While the tigers face the threat of extinction, the Asian elephants (WPA: Sch I) face the threat of attrition (gradual reduction). Their numbers have not increased or decreased drastically, but there is increasing pressure on their habitats.

Poaching and land-use changes remain major challenges to elephant populations. As both male and female African elephants possess tusks, the impact of ivory poaching is especially severe. African Forest Elephants (CR) have a more prolonged pregnancy than any other mammal — almost 22 months. This further compounds the challenge of conservation.

Ecological Importance of Elephants

• The elephant was declared the National Heritage Animal of India in 2010. Elephants are a keystone species. Their nomadic behaviour — the daily and seasonal migrations they make through their home ranges — create an umbrella effect — preserving a large area for elephants to roam freely provides a suitable habitat for many other animal and plant species of an ecosystem.

• Landscape architects: Elephants create clearings in the forest, preventing the overgrowth of certain plant species, and allowing space for the regeneration of others, which in turn provide sustenance to other animals.

• Seed dispersal: Elephants release the seeds when they defecate in other places as they travel. Nutrition: Elephant dung nourishes plants and acts as a breeding ground for insects. ⎫ Water providers: In times of drought, they access the water by digging holes, which benefits other wildlife. Further, their large footprints collect water when it rains, benefitting smaller creatures.

• Food chain: Apex predators like tigers will sometimes hunt young elephants. Further, elephant carcasses provide food for other animals.

Elephant Corridor :

Elephant corridors are linear, narrow, natural habitat linkages that allow elephants to move between secure habitats without being disturbed by humans. In India, 88 elephant corridors have been identified. There were 20 corridors in south India, 12 in north western India, 20 in central India, 14 in northern West Bengal, and 22 in north-eastern.

The Right of Passage, a study published by the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) in collaboration with Project Elephant, has identified 101 elephant corridors across India. Most of these corridors are in north-eastern India, followed by South India, central India, northern West Bengal and north-western India.

Threats to Elephant Corridors :

• Habitat loss happens due to fragmentation and destruction caused by developmental activities like mining, tourism, the construction of roads, railways, energised electric fencing, etc. Coal and iron ore mining are the two biggest threats to elephant corridors in central and eastern India.
• Elephants need extensive grazing grounds, and most reserves cannot accommodate them. If protected areas are not large enough, elephants may search for food elsewhere. This often results in human-elephant conflict leading to loss of life (~400 humans are killed in encounters with elephants annually), crops, and property.

 Mitigation :

• Fusion of the corridors with nearby protected areas wherever feasible.
• Prevention of further fragmentation of the continuous forest habitat by encroachment from urban areas.
• Declaration of the corridors as Ecologically Sensitive Areas or conservation reserves to grant protection.
• Securing the corridors by sensitising local communities and ensuring relocation voluntarily outside the conflict zones to safer areas.

 Project Elephant : The centrally sponsored scheme Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to conserve the elephant population in their natural habitats. The objectives of the scheme include :

• Assisting states having populations of wild elephants.
• Ensuring the long-term survival of identified viable populations of elephants in their natural habitats.
• Addressing human-animal conflict.
• Developing scientific and planned management measures for the conservation of elephants. Protecting the elephants from poachers, preventing illegal ivory trade and other unnatural causes of death.

 

Other Initiatives :

Haathi Mere Saathi : Haathi Mere Saathi is a campaign launched by MoEF in partnership with the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI). The campaign was launched at the “Elephant- 8” Ministerial meeting held in Delhi in 2011. The campaign Mascot is ‘Gaju’.

The E-8 countries are India, Botswana, the Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, and Thailand. This public initiative was aimed at increasing awareness among people and developing friendship, and companionship between people and elephants.

 Project REHAB : The RE-HAB Project is an innovative way of preventing elephant–human conflicts without causing any harm. It is demonstrated by Khadi and Village Industries Commission’s (KVIC). The project has significantly reduced elephants’ presence at places in Karnataka’s Kodagu district. It will soon be replicated in all states affected by elephant attacks, like West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Under this project, bee boxes are used as a fence to prevent elephants from entering human habitation. Elephants fear that the honeybees might sting them in their eyes and the inner side of the trunk. Also, the buzz of the bees irritates the elephants the most.

 Asian Elephant Alliance : It is a collation of 5 NGOs

1. Elephant Family
2. International Fund for Animal Welfare
3. IUCN
4. Wildlife Trust of India
5. World land Trust

It has come together to secure 96 out of the 101 existing corridors used by elephants across 12 States in India.

IUCN Asian Elephant Specialist Group (AsESG)

• AsESG is a global network of voluntary specialists concerned with the study, monitoring, management, and conservation of Asian elephants. It is an integral part of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the IUCN. Gajah is the bi-annual journal published by AsESG.
• AsESG provides the best available scientifically grounded evidence to the abundance, distribution, and demographic status of Asian elephant populations in all 13 range states — Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme :

The MIKE programme, mandated by a CITES COP resolution, began in South Asia in 2003. MIKE is an international collaboration that tracks elephant mortality rates, trends, and causes.

MIKE’s database is used to aid international decision-making regarding elephant conservation in Asia and Africa. The data and analyses are also presented at annual CITES meetings and CoP meetings. The MIKE Programme has one of its primary mandates to build capacity in elephant range states.

MIKE is entirely reliant on donations. Since 2001, the European Union has been the largest donor to the MIKE programme in Africa, and since 2017, it has been the largest donor in Asia.

ONE HORNED RHINO

One of the largest land animals. It is confined to the tall grasslands and forests in the foothills of the Himalayas. The Indian Rhinoceros can run at speeds of up to 25 mph (40 km/h) for short periods of time and is also an excellent swimmer.  It has excellent senses of hearing and smell, but relatively poor eyesight.

Although Indian rhinos are solitary in nature, males are not aggressively territorial, and their home ranges often overlap. They will also gather at prominent spots to wallow or graze. Wallowing is an important activity for rhinos—they find shallow mud pools and roll around to coat their skin in a protective layer of mud.  It helps them stay cool during the hottest hours of the day, keeps biting insects at bay, and potentially even blocks UV rays. 

Because they spend their afternoons wallowing, Indian rhinos typically feed during the early morning and late evening when the temperatures are cooler. 

Greater one-horned rhinos have slow reproduction habits, which is typical for mammals of their size.  Females gestate for around 15 to 16 months and raise their calves alone for at least one and a half years.  A healthy female rhino with plenty of potential partners will give birth to a single calf every two to three years.

Like other rhinos, the Indian rhino has poor sight and instead relies on its superior senses of hearing and smell. Indian rhinos are great swimmers and can cross rivers without trouble. This sets them apart from African rhinos, who can’t swim.

As megaherbivores, Indian rhinos are integral to the health of their habitats. They keep the balance of different plant species in check and reduce competition for nutrients. They also share their homes with a range of other creatures, who also benefit when we work to protect rhinos. 

Conservation Status : IUCN Red List: Vulnerable.

CITES: Appendix I (Threatened with extinction and CITES prohibits international trade in specimens of these species except when the purpose of the import is not commercial, for instance for scientific research).

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I.

Conservation of Great One-Horned Rhino

Rhinos are killed for their horns, which consist of keratin similar to human hair and nails and are used in traditional medicines in Southeast Asia.

Rhino Species across the World :

• White Rhino and Black Rhino: found in Africa. Black Rhino is the smaller of the two.
• Javan Rhino: only a few survive in Java and Vietnam.
• Sumatran Rhino: Sumatran rhino is the smallest species of rhinoceros. 30 to 80 Sumatran rhinos remain in the world, mainly on the Indonesian island of Sumatra.
• Great One-Horned Rhino: Only the Great One-Horned Rhino is found in India. It is the largest of the rhino species (second in size only to the Asian elephant). Only about 24,500 rhinos survive in the wild. Of these, more than two-thirds are white rhinos.
• African and Sumatran rhinoceros have two horns, while the others (Indian and Javan) have a single horn. The Indian rhino’s horn is present in both males and females.

India’s Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros :

1. Habitat: Tropical and Subtropical Savannas & Shrublands.
2. Distribution: Indian rhinos once ranged across northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Now they are confined to the Terai alluvial grasslands of India, Bhutan & Nepal
3. Populations: Kaziranga & Manas NPs & Pobitora WLS.
4. Threats: Poached for its horn, habitat loss and habitat fragmentation, human-animal conflict.
5. IUCN Red List: VU | CITES: Appx I | WPA: Schedule I

Conservation Measures

• In 2005, Assam adopted the ambitious Indian Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020 program in partnership with WWF India and the International Rhino Foundation.
• New Delhi Declaration on Asian Rhinos 2019 was announced for the conservation and protection of the species by five rhino range nations (India, Bhutan, Nepal, Indonesia and Malaysia).
• GOI launched a project to create DNA profiles of all rhinos.
• The National Rhino Conservation Strategy was launched in 2019 to conserve the Indian Rhino.

India Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020

 Concentrating so many rhinos in a single protected area like Kaziranga exposed the species to risks of calamities (epidemics, floods, massive poaching attempts). Therefore in 2005, conservationists, alongside the Bodoland Territorial Council and government of Assam, came together to develop a long-term strategy to manage and protect the species. Their vision was to build a 3000 wild population of Greater One Horned Rhinos by 2020, spread across 7 protected areas in Assam.

Translocations are the backbone of the IRV 2020 program. Potential rhino habitat areas identified viz. Manas NP (first site for the translocation of rhinos), Dibru Saikhowa WLS, Laokhowa-Bura Chapori WLS with a viable rhino population through translocations from Kaziranga NP and Pobitora WLS. The Indian Rhino Vision 2020 ended with the release of two rhinos in Assam’s Manas NP transported from Pobitra WLS.

Evaluation of IRV 2020 :

IRV 2020 is believed to have achieved its target of attaining a population of 3000 rhinos in Assam. With a viable Rhino population, Manas regained her (UNESCO) World Heritage Site status. But the plan to spread the Rhinoceros across other protected areas beyond Kaziranga NP, Orang NP and Pobitra WLS could not fully materialise.

Translocation to these wildlife areas remained a daunting task as the target sites remained vulnerable to poaching activities. There was negligence towards security and health monitoring of the animals. Unchecked tourism activities and road construction along the Indo-Bhutan border further compounded the problem.

Way forward :  Rather than Manas, Assam must diversify its search areas to include the rhino range around Pobitora and Amchang WLS. The Brahmaputra river channel from Kaziranga to Orang should also be declared a rhino zone.

DOLPHINS

Conservation of the Indian Dolphins

South Asian River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica)

South Asian River Dolphin (freshwater dolphin species) is divided into 2 sub-species.

1. Ganges River Dolphin (P. g. gangetica)
2. Indus River Dolphin (P. g. minor)

• Distribution: India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan.
• Threats: Unintentional killing through entanglement in fishing gear, habitat loss and degradation – water development projects (barrages, high dams, and embankments), pollution – industrial waste and pesticides, municipal sewage discharge and noise from vessel traffic.
• IUCN: EN | CITES: Appx I | CMS: Appx I | WPA: Sch I

 Ganges River Dolphin – Susu (P. g. gangetica)

GOI recognised the Ganges River dolphin as its National Aquatic Animal in 2009. It is also the State Aquatic Animal of Assam. Because of the sound it produces when breathing, the animal is popularly referred to as the ‘Susu’. It is an indicator species for the river Ganga. It can only live in freshwater and is essentially blind (blind dolphin). They hunt by emitting ultrasonic sounds.

Distribution: Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna

Only the Ganges River Dolphin is currently listed in the Convention on Migratory Species.

Indus River Dolphin (P. g. minor)

It is the State Aquatic Animal of Punjab.

Habitat: Indus River in Pakistan and its Beas (only habitat of the Indus River Dolphin in India) and Sutlej tributaries.

Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris)

Habitat: brackish water near coasts, river mouths, and estuaries and in freshwater rivers, including the Ganges, Mekong and Irrawaddy rivers.

Distribution: Concentrated lagoon populations in India are found in Chilika Lake in Odisha.

Threats: Human conflict, drowning in gillnets, etc.

 IUCN: EN | CITES: Appx I | CMS: Appx I | WPA: Sch I

 Ganges River Dolphin Conservation Measures :

• After the launch of Ganga Action Plan in 1985, GOI included Gangetic dolphins in the Sch I of the WPA, 1972. The National Ganga Council was set up to save their population. Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (Bihar), only sanctuary for dolphin conservation, was created.

• In 2020, PM Modi announced the government’s plan to launch Project Dolphin. Such an initiative got principal approval at the first meeting of the National Ganga Council (NGC), headed by the Prime Minister. The proposed project is aimed at saving both river and marine dolphins.

• Conservation Action Plan for Gangetic Dolphin (2010-2020): identified threats to Gangetic Dolphins and impact of river traffic, irrigation canals and depletion of prey-base on dolphin populations.

• Ganges River Dolphin is included among 21 species under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat.

• In 2009, the then PM while chairing the maiden meeting of the National Ganga River Basin Authority, declared the Gangetic River dolphin as the national aquatic animal.

• The National Mission for Clean Ganga, which implements the government’s flagship scheme Namami Gange, celebrates October 5 as National Ganga River Dolphin Day.

Conservation of India Crocodile Species

Indian Crocodile Species

• Gharial (CR) Gharial (CR) are fish-eating freshwater crocodiles. They are amongst the longest of all living crocodilians. They once thrived in all the major rivers of the Indian subcontinent. Today, they are extinct in the Indus, the Brahmaputra of Bhutan and Bangladesh, and in the Irrawaddy River.

Habitat : clean rivers with sand banks. Distribution: Only viable population is in the National Chambal Sanctuary spread across 3 states of UP, Rajasthan & MP. • Small non-breeding populations exist in Son, Gandak, Hooghly, Ghagra rivers & Satkosia WLS (Odisha).

Threats: combined effects of dams, barrages, artificial embankments, change in river course, pollution, sand mining, riparian agriculture & ingress of domestic & feral livestock. IUCN: CR | CITES: Appx I | CMS: Appx I | WPA: Sch I

• Mugger/Indian Crocodile (VU) The mugger (marsh/Indian/Broad Snouted) crocodile (VU) is a freshwater species.

Habitat: freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes, reservoirs, and slow-moving, shallow water bodies. Distribution: found throughout India. Extinct in Bhutan.

Threats: Habitat destruction because of conversion of natural habitats for agricultural and industrial use, sacrificed in superstitious practices or used as aphrodisiacs (any food or drug that arouses sexual instinct).

IUCN: VU | CITES: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I

• Saltwater Crocodile (LC)

Saltwater Crocodile (LC) is the largest living reptile and crocodile known to science.

Habitat: Saltwater habitats and brackish wetlands. Distribution: India’s east coast (Odisha’s Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, Andaman and Nicobar Islands coasts, and Sundarbans), across Southeast Asia and the Sundaic region to northern Australia.

Threat: Hunted for its skin, illegal killing, and habitat loss.

IUCN: LC | CITES: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I

Indian Crocodile Conservation Project

The Indian Crocodile Conservation Project has pulled back the once-threatened crocodilians from the brink of extinction and placed them on a good path of recovery. Its objectives are:

• To protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries.
• To rebuild natural populations quickly through the ‘grow and release’ or ‘rear and release’ technique.
• To promote captive breeding — members of a wild species are captured, bred, and raised in a special facility under the care of wildlife biologists and other experts. Bringing an animal into captivity may represent the last chance to preserve a species in the wild.

Madras Crocodile Bank Trust : It is a reptile zoo and research station on the outskirts of Chennai. It has one of the world’s largest collections of crocodiles and alligators. It was established to save Indian species of crocodile — the marsh or mugger crocodile (VU), the saltwater crocodile (LC), and the gharial (CR). The place offers a secure nesting beach for olive ridley sea turtles (VU) as well.

Conservation of Turtles

Threats faced by Indian turtles: Poaching for consumption, illegal trade, habitat loss, pollution, etc.

Comparison Between Tortoise and Turtle :

Tortoise: ●        Lives on land (land-dwelling) ●        Everything happens on land ●        Bad swimmers ●        Herbivores (plant-eating) ●        They usually have a long lifespan (80-120 years). ●        They are generally large. ●        Their heads can completely withdraw into shells.

Turtle: ●        Lives in water (water-dwelling) ●        Comes to land to lay eggs ●        Good swimmers (limbs are paddle-shaped) ●        Omnivores (they eat both meat and plants) ●        They usually have a short lifespan (20-40 years). ●        They are generally smaller. ●        Their heads can partially withdraw into shells.

Batagur Turtles Species : Batagur is a genus of large river turtles from South and Southeast Asia. Major species include :

Southern River Terrapin (CR): Found in SE Asian rivers.

Northern River Terrapin (CR): It is one of Asia’s largest freshwater turtles.

• Distribution: River deltas of SE Asia and Sundarbans.
• IUCN: CR | CITES: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I.

Painted Terrapin (CR): Found in SE Asian rainforests.

Three-Striped Roofed Turtle (CR): Endemic to the Ganges.

• Habitat: Nests on the sandbanks of large rivers.
• Distribution: Ganges plains of India, Nepal & Bangladesh.
• IUCN: CR | CITES: Appendix II | WPA: Schedule I

Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle (CR): Endemic to the Ganges.

• Males are smaller than females.
• Habitat: Ganga and Brahmaputra River basins.
• Distribution: Substantial numbers found only in the National Chambal River Gharial Sanctuary.
• IUCN: CR | CITES: Appendix II | WPA: Schedule I

Burmese Roofed Turtle (CR): Irrawaddy River of Myanmar.

Southern River Terrapin (CR) and Northern River Terrapin (CR) are currently listed in CITES Appendix I. The rest are listed in CITES Appendix II.

 Nissilonia Turtle Species

• Nilssonia is a genus of freshwater softshell turtles found in South Asian rivers. Major species include:
  • Burmese Peacock Softshell Turtle (CR): Found in Myanmar and Karbi Anglong district of Assam.
  • Leith’s Softshell Turtle (CR): Endemic to peninsular rivers.
  • Black Softshell Turtle (CR): Native to the lower Brahmaputra River. At present, only a few of them survive in a human-made pond in Chittagong.
  • Indian (Ganges) Softshell Turtle (EN): Found in the waters of the Ganges, Indus, and Mahanadi.
  • Indian Peacock Softshell Turtle (EN): Found in the Indus, Ganges, and the Brahmaputra.
• Burmese Peacock Softshell Turtle (CR) is currently listed in CITES Appendix II. The rest are listed in CITES Appendix I.

Leith’s Softshell Turtle (CR)

• Distribution: Peninsular Indian rivers.
• It is listed in Schedule IV WPA, and its possession is an offense. The WPA Act protects it from hunting and trade.
• IUCN: CR | CITES: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule IV

Black Softshell Turtle (CR)

• Habitat: Lower Brahmaputra River.
• Distribution: Only a few of them survive in a human-made pond in Chittagong & temple ponds in NE India.
• IUCN: CR | CITES: Appendix I | WPA: N/A

Indian (Ganges) Softshell Turtle (EN)

• It is distinguished by its flattened shell.
• Distribution: Ganges, Indus, and Mahanadi.
• IUCN: EN | CITES: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I

Indian Peacock Softshell Turtle (EN)

• Habitat: Rivers, lakes & ponds with mud or sand bottoms.
• Distribution: Indus, Ganges, and the Brahmaputra.
• IUCN: EN | CITES: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I

Indian Narrow (Small) Headed Softshell Turtle (EN)

• Unlike the other softshell turtle species, the Indian Narrow Headed Softshell Turtle belongs to the genus Chitra.
• It is one of the largest freshwater turtles. Just like other softshell turtles, it uses its flexible shell to dig itself deep into sandy bottoms, waiting for its potential prey.
• Distribution: Sutlej, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Mahanadi, Padma, etc.
• IUCN: EN | CITES: Appendix II | WPA: Schedule IV

Sea Turtle Species :

The seven known sea turtle species in the decreasing order of their size: Leatherback > Green > Loggerhead > Hawksbill > Flatback (endemic to the sandy beaches of the Australian continental shelf) > Olive Ridley > Kemp’s Ridley.

Hawksbill Sea Turtle (CR)

• It is migratory, and nesting occurs on insular sandy beaches.
• Distribution: In India, they are found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the coast of Tamil Nadu, and Orissa.
• IUCN: CR | CITES: Appx I | CMS: Appendix I | WPA: Sch I

Kemp’s (Atlantic) Ridley Sea Turtle (CR)

• It is the world’s rarest and smallest sea turtle. Kemp’s Ridley and Olive Ridley Turtles are known for ARRIBADA — synchronized, large-scale nesting.
• Distribution: Subtropical to temperate Northern Atlantic.
• IUCN: CR | CITES: Appendix I | CMS: Appx I | WPA: N/A

Green Sea Turtle (EN)

• It is the only herbivore turtle species.
• Distribution: Tropical and subtropical seas; rare in India.
• IUCN: EN | CITES: Appx I | CMS: Appx I | WPA: Sch I

Leatherback Sea Turtle (VU)

• It is the largest of the living sea turtles (250-700 kg).
• Distribution: Tropical and temperate seas and oceans.
• Threats: Artificial lighting disorients hatchlings and causes them to migrate inland.
• IUCN: VU | CITES: Appx I | CMS: Appx I | WPA: Sch I

Loggerhead Sea Turtle (VU)

• Distribution: Tropical and temperate seas and oceans.
• IUCN: VU | CITES: Appx I | CMS: Appx I | WPA: Sch I

Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (VU)

• They are best known for their synchronised nesting. Most of them migrate every winter to Indian coastal waters for nesting, mainly on the eastern coast. Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary and Rushikulya Rookery Coast are the main nesting sites in India.
• Distribution: Warm tropical seas and oceans.
• Threats: Unsustainable egg collection, slaughtering nesting females on the beach, and direct harvesting adults at sea for commercial sale of both the meat and hides, etc.
• IUCN: VU | CITES: Appx I | CMS: Appx I | WPA: Sch I

Sea Turtle Conservation Project

• With the objective of conservation of olive ridley turtles (VU) and other endangered marine turtles, MoEF initiated the Sea Turtle Conservation Project in collaboration with UNDP in 1999 with Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun as the Implementing Agency. The project is being implemented in 10 coastal states of the country, with special emphasis in Odisha.

• The project has helped in the preparation of an inventory map of breeding sites of Sea Turtles, identification of nesting and breeding habitats along the shoreline, and migratory routes taken by Sea Turtles, etc.

• One of the important achievements has been the demonstration of the use of Satellite Telemetry to locate the migratory route of Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and sensitising. the fishermen and State Government for the use of Turtle Exclusion Device (TED) in fishing trawlers to check turtle mortality in fishing nets.

Conservation of Indian Vultures

India is the most favourable region for vultures. Hindus do not eat cows, and when a cow dies, it is left to be fed on by vultures. India also has high species diversity, and hence vultures get a lot of food. Nine species of vulture can be found in India. Most are in danger of extinction due to a veterinary drug called diclofenac (vultures do not have a particular enzyme required to break down diclofenac).

Diclofenac and Indian Vulture Crisis

• Diclofenac is a common nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID – works like steroids, but without as many side effects) administered to livestock and is used to treat the symptoms of inflammation, fevers, and/or pain associated with disease or wounds. It leads to renal failure in vultures damaging their excretory system (direct inhibition of uric acid secretion in vultures).

• Gyps species were the most affected by diclofenac:

1. The population of the White-Rumped Vulture fell 99.7% between 1993 and 2002.
2. The populations of the Indian Vulture and the Slender-Billed Vulture fell 97.4%.

Two other species of Gyps, Himalayan Vulture and Eurasian Griffon, were less affected because they come to India only in winters. They are exclusively mountain-dwelling and hence less vulnerable to diclofenac contamination.

Consequences of Depopulation of Vultures

Vultures played an important role in public sanitation. The carcasses formerly eaten by vultures rot in village fields, leading to contaminated drinking water. Their disappearance has resulted in an explosion of rats and wild dogs and the spread of diseases. The newly abundant scavengers are not as efficient as vultures.

A vulture’s metabolism is a true “dead-end” for pathogens, but dogs and rats become carriers of the pathogens. They carry diseases from rotting carcasses such as rabies, anthrax, plague, etc.

India Vultures Species : Indian vulture species are old-world vultures — found in the Old-World continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. They belong to the Accipitridae family.

White-Rumped Vulture (CR)

• Was once very common in the Gangetic plains of India.
• IUCN: CR | CMS: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I

Red-Headed Vulture (CR)

• It is also known as the Asian King Vulture, Indian Black Vulture, or Pondicherry Vulture.
• IUCN: CR | CMS: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule IV

Indian (Long-Billed) Vulture (CR)

• It is native to India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
• IUCN: CR | CMS: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I

Slender-Billed Vulture (CR)

• It is native to the sub-Himalayan region and Southeast Asia.
• IUCN: CR | CMS: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I

Egyptian Vulture (EN)

• IUCN: EN | CMS: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule IV

Himalayan (Griffon) Vulture (NT)

• It is native to the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau.
• IUCN: NT | CMS: Appendix II | WPA: Schedule IV

Bearded Vulture (NT)

• It lives and breeds on the high mountains.
• IUCN: NT | CMS: Appendix II | WPA: Schedule IV

Cinereous Vulture (NT)

• Distributed throughout Eurasia.
• IUCN: NT | CMS: Appendix II | WPA: Schedule IV

(Eurasian) Griffon Vulture (LC)

• IUCN: LC | CMS: Appendix II | WPA: Schedule IV

Major Non-Indian Vulture Species

• White-Backed Vulture (CR):
  • IUCN: CR | CMS: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule IV

• Ruppell’s (Griffon) Vulture (CR):
  • It is native to the Sahel region and East Africa.
  • IUCN: CR | CMS: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule IV

Steps Taken by The Government :

• The vulture species are conserved under Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) ‘Species Recovery Programme’.

• The protection status of White-Rumped, Long-Billed (Indian Vulture), and Slender-Billed Vultures was upgraded from Schedule IV to Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. The rest of the vulture species remain in Schedule IV.

• Vulture Restaurants are created where tables are reserved only for the unique and rare vultures by Maharashtra and Punjab Forest departments.

• Central Zoo Authority and Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) led the establishment of the Vulture Conservation Breeding Programme (which has been highly successful).

• Vulture Safe Zones are created to conserve the remaining population and facilitate the reintroduction of vultures into the wild from Vulture Conservation Breeding Centres.

Vulture Safety Zones (VSZ) : The aim of developing VSZs is to establish targeted awareness activities surrounding a 150 km radius of vultures’ colonies so that no diclofenac or veterinary toxic drugs are found in cattle carcasses.

The VSZ is spread around several hundred kilometres covering Jim Corbett in Uttarakhand, Dudhwa, and Katarniaghat forest reserves in UP, which are adjoining the Indo-Nepal border. Nepal has already set up many VSZ on the Indian borders.

Action Plan for Vulture Conservation in India 2020-25

The Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (APVC) 2006 was released to save the vultures from possible extinction. The main objective was the removal of diclofenac from the food chain. The plan was extended to 2025, aiming not just to halt the decline but to actively increase the vulture numbers in India. Main objectives are to:

• Ensure that the sale of veterinary Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is strictly regulated.
• Carry out safety testing of available molecules of veterinary NSAIDs on vultures and introduce new molecules in the market only after they are proven to be safe following safety testing on vultures.
• Include drugs other than diclofenac that are toxic to vultures like Aceclofenac and Ketoprofen to be banned for veterinary use.
• Cover all nine species of vultures recorded from India.
• Have at least one vulture safe zone in each state.

Diclofenac Alternative : Diclofenac was banned for veterinary use in India in 2006. A replacement drug Meloxicam was quickly developed and tested. It affects cattle the same way as diclofenac but is harmless for vultures. Diclofenac for human use is still being diverted for veterinary uses through black markets.

Other National Efforts

Project Hangul (Kashmiri Stag)

The Hangul/Kashmir Stag (CR) is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to northern India. It was the state animal of erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir. In Kashmir, it is found in Dachigam NP at elevations of 3,035 metres.

These deer once numbered about 5,000 animals at the beginning of the 20th century. They are now threatened due to habitat destruction, over-grazing by domestic livestock, and poaching. The species dwindled to as low as 150 animals by 1970.

The erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir, along with the IUCN and the WWF prepared Project Hangul for the protection of these animals, and the population increased to over 340 by 1980. According to the census in 2019, there were only 237 Hanguls.

 Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats

Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) is an on-going Centrally Sponsored Scheme. Under IDWH, financial assistance is provided to State/UTs for protection and conservation of wildlife.

Components of the Scheme

1. Support to Protected Areas (National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation, and Community Reserves)
2. Protection of Wildlife Outside Protected Areas
3. Species Recovery Programmes for saving Indian critically endangered species and habitats.

 

22 Indian Critically Endangered (Locally) Species Under Species Recovery Programme

IDWH provides financial assistance for the conservation of the 22 species included in the Indian (locally) critically endangered list.

Mammals

1. Hangul (Kashmir Stag – CR)
2. Malabar Civet (CR)
3. Asian Wild Water Buffalo (EN)
4. Asiatic Lion (EN)
5. Brow-Antlered Deer / Sangai / Eld’s Deer (EN)
6. Nilgiri Tahr (EN)
7. Red Panda (EN)
8. Clouded Leopard (VU)
9. Indian Rhino / Great One-Horned Rhinoceros (VU)
10. Snow Leopard (VU)
11. Swamp Deer / Barasingha (VU)
12. Caracal Cat (LC) (most recent addition to the list)

Marine Mammals

1. Dugong (VU)
2. Gangetic River Dolphin (EN)

Birds

1. Great Indian Bustard (CR)
2. Jerdon’s Courser (CR)
3. Nicobar Megapode (VU)
4. Edible Nest Swiftlet (LC)
5. Vultures (all species found in India)

Reptiles

1. Arabian Sea Humpback Whale (EN) (it is a subpopulation of Humpback Whales (LC))
2. Marine Turtles
3. Northern River Terrapin (CR)