International Reports and Efforts for Climate Change

INTERNATIONAL REPORTS RELATED TO CLIMATE CHANGE

 

STATE OF GLOBAL CLIMATE REPORT, 2022

It is an Annual Assessment of the Earth’s Climate by the World Meteorological Organisation(WMO).

Highlights of the report : The report focuses on key climate indicators – Greenhouse Gases, Temperatures,  Sea level rise, Ocean Heat and Acidification, Sea ice and Glaciers. It also highlights the impacts of climate change and extreme weather.

Temperature : Global mean temperature in 2022 was 1.15 °C above the 1850-1900 average. The years 2015 to 2022 were the eight warmest in the instrumental record back to 1850. This was despite three consecutive years of a cooling La Niña – such a “triple-dip” La Niña has happened only three times in the past 50 years.

Greenhouse Gases : Concentrations of the three main GHG, Carbon dioxide, Methane, and Nitrous oxide, reached record highs in 2021. The annual increase in methane concentration from 2020 to 2021 was the highest on record.

Sea Level Rise : Global mean sea level (GMSL) continued to rise in 2022, reaching a new record high for the satellite altimeter record. For the period 2005-2019, total land ice loss from glaciers, Greenland, and Antarctica contributed 36% to the GMSL rise, and ocean warming contributed 55%.

Ocean Heat : Ocean heat content reached a new record high in 2022. Around 90% of the energy trapped in the climate system by greenhouse gases goes into the ocean, somewhat ameliorating even higher temperature increases but posing risks to marine ecosystems.

Ocean Acidification : CO₂ reacts with seawater resulting in a decrease of pH referred to as ‘ocean acidification’, threatening organisms and ecosystem services. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report concluded that “There is very high confidence that open ocean surface pH is now the lowest it has been for at least 26 [thousand years] and current rates of pH change are unprecedented since at least that time.

Sea Ice : Sea ice in Antarctica dropped to 1.92 million km2 in February 2022, the lowest level on record and almost 1 million km2 below the long-term (1991-2020) mean.

Glaciers : Glaciers are losing a lot of ice, with a thickness change of over (-) 1.3 metres on average between October 2021 and October 2022, which is much larger than the average of the past decade. The European Alps saw record glacier melt due to a lack of winter snow, dust from the Sahara in March 2022, and heat waves from May to early September.

What are the Impacts of Such Record Highs In Climate Indicators?

Drought in East Africa:

Rainfall has been below-average in five consecutive wet seasons, the longest such sequence in 40 years. As of January 2023, it was estimated that over 20 million people faced acute food insecurity across the region, under the effects of the drought and other shocks.

Record Breaking Rain in Pakistan:

Total damage and economic losses were assessed at USD 30 billion.

July (181% above normal) and August (243% above normal) were each the wettest on record nationally.

The flooding in Pakistan affected some 33 million people, including about 8,00,000 Afghan refugees hosted in affected districts.

Heat Waves in Europe:

In some areas, extreme heat was coupled with exceptionally dry conditions. Excess deaths associated with the heat in Europe exceeded 15, 000 in total across Spain, Germany, the UK, France, and Portugal.

China had its most extensive and long-lasting heatwave since national records began, extending from mid-June to the end of August and resulting in the hottest summer on record by a margin of more than 0.5 °C. It was also the second-driest summer on record.

Food Insecurity:

As of 2021, 2.3 billion people faced food insecurity, of which 924 million people faced severe food insecurity.

Projections estimated 767.9 million people facing undernourishment in 2021, 9.8% of the global population.

Half of these are in Asia and one third in Africa.

Pre-Monsoon Heat Waves in India and Pakistan:

Pre-monsoon season Heatwaves in India and Pakistan in caused a decline in crop yields. This, combined with the banning of wheat exports and restrictions on rice exports in India after the start of the conflict in Ukraine, threatened the availability, access, and stability of staple foods within international food markets and posed high risks to countries already affected by shortages of staple foods.

Displacement:

In Somalia, almost 1.2 million people became internally displaced by the catastrophic impacts of drought on pastoral and farming livelihoods and hunger during the year, of whom more than 60,000 people crossed into Ethiopia and Kenya during the same period. Concurrently, Somalia was hosting almost 35,000 refugees and asylum seekers in drought-affected areas.

 

WMO WMO is a specialised body of the UN which is an authoritative voice on behaviour of earth’s atmosphere, its interaction with the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water resources.   Headquarter: Geneva   It originated from the International Meteorological Organization, which was founded in 1873. It was established in 1950, and became the specialised agency of the UN in 1951 for Meteorology (weather and climate), operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences.

 

STATE OF CLIMATE SERVICE REPORT

Background : In 2018, the COP serving as the meeting of parties to the Paris Agreement at the 24^th Conference of Parties to the UNFCCC called on the WMO through its Global Framework for Climate Services (GFCS) to regularly report on the state of climate services. The aim is to “facilitate the development and application of methodologies for assessing adaptation needs.”

2021 State of Climate Services –  It focuses on Terrestrial Water Storage.

Key Highlights:

• Terrestrial Water Storage (TWS) : TWS is thesum of all water on the land surface and in the subsurface,e. surface water, soil moisture, snow and ice and groundwater.

Water is a key prerequisite for human development. But only 0.5% of water on Earth is usable and available as freshwater. Water resources across the world are under tremendous pressure due to human and naturally-induced stressors.

These include population growth, urbanisation and decreasing availability of freshwater. Extreme weather events too have been responsible for the pressure on water resources realised across sectors and regions.

• Global Scenario : TWS dropped at a rate of 1 cm per year in 20 years(2002-2021). The  biggest losses have occurred in Antarctica and Greenland. But many highly populated, lower latitude locations have also experienced TWS losses.

• Indian Scenario : The TWS has been lost at a rate of at least 3 cm per year.In some regions, the loss has been over 4 cm per year too. India has recorded the highest loss in terrestrial water storage if the loss of water storage in Antarctica and Greenland is excluded.

India is the ‘topmost hotspot of TWS loss’. The northern part of India has experienced the maximum loss within the country.

• Per Capita Availability : In India, per capita water availability isreducing due to an increase in population.

The average annual per capita water availability has reduced to 1,545 cubic metres in 2011, from 1,816 cubic metres in 2001. It is projected to further decrease to 1,367 cubic metres in 2031, according to the Union Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.

• River Basins: Fiveof the 21 river basins in India are ‘absolute water scarce’ (per capita water availability below 500 cubic metres) according to the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator.

Five are ‘water scarce’ (per capita water availability below 1,000 cubic metres) and three are ‘water stressed’ (per capita water availability below 1,700 cubic metres). By 2050, six will become absolute water scarce, six will become water scarce and four will become water stressed, according to the State of India’s Environment in figures, 2020.

The Falkenmark indicator is one of the most widely used indicators for assessing the stress on water. It relates the total freshwater resources with the total population in a country and indicates the pressure that population puts on water resources, including the needs for natural ecosystems.

Recommendations:

Investments Needed: Integrated Resources Water Management as a solution to better manage water stress, especially in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs).

In end-to-end drought and flood early warning systems in at-risk LDCs, including for drought warning in Africa and flood warning in Asia.

Fill Capacity Gap:
Fill the capacity gap in collecting data for basic hydrological variables which underpin climate services and early warning systems. Fill the gaps in data on country capacities for climate services in the water sector, especially for SIDS.

Improve Interaction:

Improve the interaction among national level stakeholders to co-develop and operationalize climate services with information users to better support adaptation in the water sector. There is also a pressing need for better monitoring and evaluation of socio-economic benefits, which will help to showcase best practices.

Join the Water and Climate Coalition: Water and Climate Coalition is a platform for its members to partner on joint activities and implement solutions that address the gaps of operational water and climate challenges with a focus on data and information.

THE EMISSION GAP REPORT:

The report provides the latest assessment of scientific studies on current and estimated future GreenHouse Gases (GHG) emissions and compares these with the emission levels permissible for the world to progress on a least- cost pathway too achieve the goals of Paris agreement.

The difference between “where we are likely to be and where we need to be” has become known as the emission gap”. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) released a report titled ‘Emissions Gap Report 2022: The Closing Window — Climate Crisis Calls for Rapid Transformation of Societies’.

This is the 13^th edition of the UNEP Emissions Gap Report. It assesses the gap between anticipated emissions in 2030 and levels consistent with the 1.5°C and 2°C targets of the Paris Agreement. Every year, the report features ways to bridge the gap.

 Key findings :

• The top 7 emitters(China, the EU27, India, Indonesia, Brazil, the Russian Federation and the United States of America) plus international transport accounted for 55% of global GHG emissions in 2020.

• For these countries GHG emissions rebounded in 2021, exceeding pre-pandemic 2019 levels.

• Collectively, G20 membersare responsible for 75% of global GHG (Greenhouse Gas Emission)

• The global average per capita GHG emissions was 3 tonnes of CO₂equivalent (tCO₂e) in 2020.

• India remains far below the world average at 2.4 tCO₂e.

• World is falling short of the goals set forth in the Paris Climate Agreementadopted in 2015, with no credible pathway to 1.5°C in place.

• The Paris Agreement defined a global warming limit of 2°C above pre-industrial levels (preferably 1.5°C), which if exceeded, can result in extreme weather eventssuch as extreme heat waves, droughts, water stress, etc.

• National pledges since COP26 (Glasgow, UK)make a negligible difference to predict 2030 emissions.

 

Key recommendation :

The world needs to reduce greenhouse gases by unprecedented levels over the next eight years. There is a need for alternative technologies in heavy industry, to reverse the rise in carbon intensity of global steel production.

Urgent transformation is needed to deliver the enormous cuts needed to limit GHG emissions by 2030.

Unconditional and conditional NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions) are expected to reduce global emissions by 5% and 10%, respectively, by 2030, when compared to current policies. To be on the most cost-effective path to limiting global warming to 2°C or 1.5°C, these percentages must reach 30% and 45%.

 

United Nations Environment Programme About : It is a leading global environmental authority established on 5th June 1972. It sets the global environmental agenda, promotes sustainable development within the United Nations system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for global environment protection. Headquarters : Nairobi, Kenya. Major Reports : Emission Gap Report, Adaptation Gap Report, Global Environment Outlook, Frontiers, Invest into Healthy Planet. Major Campaigns : Beat Pollution, UN75, World Environment Day, Wild for Life.

 

ADAPTATION GAP REPORT

According to the United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) Adaptation Gap Report, 2022, global efforts in adaptation planning, financing and implementation are not enough to prepare vulnerable communities around the world to adapt to the rising risks from the impacts of climate change.

The report found some progress on adaptation plans from national governments, but they are not backed by finance.

What are the Findings of the Report?

• A third of the 197 parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)have incorporated quantified and time-bound targets on adaptation. And 90% of them have considered gender and disadvantaged groups.

• International adaptation finance flows are 5-10 times lower than requiredand this gap continues to grow. Finance for adaptation increased to USD 29 billion in 2020, a 4% increase over 2019.

• This is when developing countries’ estimated annual adaptation needs are USD 160-USD 340 billion by 2030 and USD 315-USD 565 billion by 2050.

 

What are the Steps Suggested by the Report?

A Nature-based Approach : The report highlighted that the best way was to link actions on mitigation and adaptation in terms of planning, financing and implementation, which would provide co-benefits. One example of this could be nature-based solutions.

Climate Adaptation:  Countries need to back the strong words in the Glasgow Climate Pact with strong action to increase adaptation investments and outcomes, starting at COP27.

Other Strategies:  The adaptation gap must be addressed in four critical ways:

• Increase Financing for Adaptation:There is a need for developed countries to provide a clear roadmap for their promise of doubling finance for adaptation to USD 40 billion, which was decided at COP 26 in Glasgow.

• A New Business Model:The world urgently needs a new business model for turning adaptation priorities into investable projects as there is a mismatch between what governments propose and what financiers consider investable.

• Need for Data Implementation:The availability of climate risk data and information, an issue for adaptation planning in many developing countries.

• Modified Warning Systems:The implementation and operationalisation of early warning systems against extreme weather events and slow onset changes such as sea level rise.
   

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK ( GEO-6)

Last released in March 2019 It covers all environmental issues and their link to human health. It is prepared by UNEP.

Key findings:

As greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise amid an increased risk of droughts, floods and superstorms made worse by climbing sea levels, there is a growing political consensus that climate change poses a future risk to billions.

A quarter of all premature deaths and diseases worldwide are due to manmade pollution and environmental damage – around 9 million deaths in 2015 alone.

Lacking access to clean drinking supplies, 1.4 million people die each year from preventable diseases such as diarrhoea and parasites linked to pathogen-riddled water and poor sanitation.

Chemicals pumped into the seas cause “potentially multi-generational” adverse health effects.

Land degradation through mega-farming and deforestation occurs in areas home to 3.2 billion people.

The report called for a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions and pesticide use to improve air and water quality.

Food waste for instance, which accounts for 9% of global greenhouse gas emissions, could be slashed.

The world currently throws away a third of all food produced. In richer nations, 56% goes to waste.

The report advises adopting less-meat intensive diets and reducing food waste in both developed and developing countries.

This would reduce the need to increase food production by 50% to feed the projected 9-10 billion people on the planet in 2050.

GEO The Global Environment Outlook is often referred to as UN Environment’s flagship environmental assessment. UN Environment launched the first Global Environment Outlook in 1997. It is a flagship report because it fulfils the core functions of the UNEP.

 

UN REPORT BY FAO : PEATLAND PROTECTION WILL HELP ATTAIN CLIMATE GOALS

About Peat lands: A peatland is an area of land with layers of accumulated organic surface material in a state of decay (known as peat). Peat develops in waterlogged conditions. Peat lands represent a huge terrestrial carbon reserve.

Damage to these Fragile Ecosystems, which take thousands of years to form working as a slow carbon sink, is a major source of greenhouse gases.

According to the latest global estimates, peat land drainage and fires are estimated to contribute at least 5 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to climate change. Proper protection and restoration of peatland ecosystems support both the adaptive capacity as well as climate change mitigation efforts as well as maintain the production of other ecosystem services.

FAO efforts towards protection of peat land : FAO supports countries in advancing sustainable peatland management through:

• Knowledge sharing and capacity buildings
• Policies and governance such as integration of peat lands into national plans and reporting.
• Technical support at the regional, national and field level.

 

Report: Peatland Mapping and Monitoring :

Peat land covers only 3% of Earth’s surface. They contain 30% of the world’s soil carbon. Their degradation due to drainage fire, agricultural use and forestry can trigger release of stored carbon in a few decades.

Recommendations:

• The peat lands areas should be urgently mapped and monitored. It will also help us work towards conservation and restoration measures.
• The monitoring exercise requires a mix of satellite and ground- based exercises.

 

IPCC REPORTS :

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the international body for assessing the science related to climate change. Its job is to assess already published scientific literature to update our knowledge of climate change science.

It was set up in 1988 by World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) to provide policy makers with regular assessment of the science basis of climate change, its impact and future risks, and options for adaptation and mitigations. India is a member of IPCC.

They help governments at all levels to develop climate change policies. Their reports from the backbone of UNFCCC negotiations. The reports are generally policy relevant but not policy prescriptive. IPCC is publishing a series of reports in the run- up to the assessment report due in 2022.

IPCC Report, 2018: THE SPECIAL REPORT ON GLOBAL WARMING (1.5C REPORT)  At present the world is 1.2 degree warmer when compared to pre- industrial levels. At current rate, the gold average temperature is likely to reach 1.5- degree warmer between 2032-2050. The NDCs by various countries under the Paris Agreement are “Clearly insufficient” in limiting warming to 1.5- degree C.

IPCC REPORT : SPECIAL REPORT ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAND  : Released in Aug 2019. It shows how the different uses of land- forests, agriculture, urbanisation are affecting and getting affected by climate Change. This is the first time that IPCC’s assessment has focused entirely on the land sector.

IPCC SPECIAL REPORT ON THE OCEAN AND CRYOSPHERE (SROCC) :  Published by IPCC in Sep 2019. This is the second special report of IPCC this year and the third report of the sixth assessment cycle. (2019) The Ocean has absorbed a significant amount 20-30% of human carbon emissions since the 1980s. This has caused a decline in PH level of oceans and has increased the heating of oceans.

Earth’s Frozen regions are losing ice and snow rapidly and warming faster than the rest of the world. Ocean will continue to warm and become more acidic—this will worsen the situation of sea level rise, marine heatwaves etc. Cryosphere is also likely to decline by 18-36% by the end of the century, contributing to 3.7 inches -7.9 inches of sea level rise.

The report finds that aggressive adaptation efforts will help “buy time” for many communities. For e.g, changing fishery management practices can help maintain fish and shellfish populations. But there are limits to adaptation and many negative impacts will still occur even if we reduce emissions. Some island nations, for example, would become uninhabitable due to sea level rise.

Sixth Assessment Report of IPCC : The Assessment Reports – by three working groups of scientists.

Working Group-I – Deals with the scientific basis for climate change.

Working Group-II – Looks at the likely impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation issues.

Working Group-III – Deals with actions that can be taken to combat climate change.

Synthesis report : The Synthesis Report was published as recently as 20^th March, 2023. This Synthesis Report of the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) summarises the state of knowledge of climate change, its widespread impacts and risks, and climate change mitigation and adaptation. It integrates the main findings of the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) based on contributions from the three Working Groups, and the three Special Reports.

Current Status of Climate Change : Global surface temperature was 1.09°C higher in 2011–2020 than 1850–1900. There is a larger increase over land (1.59°C) than over the ocean (0.88°C).

In 2019, atmospheric CO2 concentrations were higher than at any time in at least 2 million years. Concentrations of methane and nitrous oxide were higher than at any time in at least 800,000 years. Global mean sea level increased by 0.20 m between 1901 and 2018. Although overall agricultural productivity has increased, climate change has slowed this growth over the past 50 years globally.

Future Climate Change : In the near term (2021-2040), global warming is more likely than not to reach 1.5°C even under the very low GHG emission scenario. Compound heatwaves and droughts are projected to become more frequent, including concurrent events across multiple locations. Due to relative sea level rise, current 1-in-100 year extreme sea level events are projected to occur at least annually in more than half of all tide gauge locations by 2100 under all considered scenarios.

Climate Change Adaptation & their Limitation : Climate change adaptation is the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects. Adaptation options that are feasible and effective today will become constrained and less effective with increasing global warming.

GLOBAL ENERGY REVIEW : BY INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY

The IEA, in its Global Energy Review 2021, provides a snapshot of energy demand for all major fuels, as well as CO₂ emissions. The report was released in April 2021. The accelerated rollout of COVID-19 vaccination in many countries and widespread fiscal response throughout the Worlds is boosting the outlook for economic growth and leading to a rebound in energy demand in 2021.

Energy demand : Global energy demand is set to increase by 4.6% in 2021, surpassing the Pre-COVID-19 levels.

Energy Demand by Fuels: In 2020, global oil demand was down by almost 9% across the year. It was the worst hit fossil fuel. But it is also expected to rebound faster than other fossil fuels. In 2020, Coal demand was also down by 4% mostly due to decline in electricity generation. Gas demand only fell by 2%. It was more resilient compared to coal because of its lower prices. But overall the demand in 2021 is expected to be 1.3% above the 2019 levels. Renewable energy proved immune to the COVID-19 as they have benefited from priority market access in many markets. They grew by 3% in 2020 largely due to an increase in electricity generation from solar PV and wind of 330 TWh. The Solar PV and Wind energy sector is expected to grow by 17% in 2021, up from 16% in 2020. Rate of change of energy demand in 2020, and 2021 energy demand relative to 2019 levels, by region

CO₂ Emission :  Global CO₂ emissions declined by 5.8% in 2020- this is the largest ever decline and almost 5 times greater than the 2009 decline following the global financial crisis. Global energy- related CO2 is heading towards the second largest annual increase eve in 2021.

CO₂ Emission by Region :  Emerging markets are driving the energy demand back above 2019 levels. Emerging markets and developing economies now account for more than 2/3^rd of global CO2 emissions, 1.4% above 2019 levels. Emissions of India are now on par with EU emission, although on a per capita basis they remain two- thirds lower than Europe and 60% lower than the global average.

 

International Energy Agency (IEA) The International Energy Agency (IEA), an autonomous agency within the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Other reports released by IEA : ●        World energy outlook ●        Net zero roadmap ●        Oil market report ●        Energy technologies perspective

 

CLIMATE CHANGE PERFORMANCE INDEX (CCPI)

India for the second time in a row, ranks among the top 5 in 2022’s climate change Performance Index (CCPI) . Published since 2005, CCPI is an independent monitoring tool of countries’ climate protection performance. It aims to enhance transparency in international climate politics and enable the comparability of climate protection efforts and progress made by individual countries.

The CCPI assesses each country’s performance in four categories:

• GHG emissions (40% of the overall ranking)
• Renewable energy (20%)
• Energy Use (20%)
• Climate policy (20%)

59 countries and the EU (which together are responsible for 90% of emissions) are assessed under this ranking. The report is jointly presented by: German Watch, New Climate Institute and Climate Action Network (CAN).

 India earned a high rating in the GHG Emissions and Energy Use categories, while a medium for Climate Policy and Renewable Energy. The aggressive policies of India towards rapid deployment of renewables and robust framework for energy efficiency programs have shown considerable impact. As per the CCPI report, India is on track to meet its 2030 emissions targets (compatible with a well-below-2°C scenario).

GLOBAL CLIMATE RISK INDEX

Global Climate Risk Index, 2021 was published by environmental, think tank, German watch (Jan 2021)

About  : It analyses to what extent countries have been affected by the acts of weather related loss events (storms, floods, heat waves etc.) The report is released by German Watch, an independent Berlin based development and environmental organisation.

About India : In the 2021 index, India is the 7th global climate risk index

WORLD RISK INDEX :                                                                                                        

Indian Ranked 89th among 181 countries on the World Risk Index (WRI) Sep 2020.

The WRI is part of the world risk index report released on September 15 by the United Nations University Institute for environment and human security and  Bundnis Hilft in cooperation with the University of Stuttgart in Germany. It indicates which countries are in the greatest need to strengthen measures for coping with adapting to extreme natural events.

WRI is measured on a country by country basis through the multiplication of exploration and vulnerability.

GLOBAL RISK REPORT :

The World Economic Forum (WEF) has released the 18^th Edition of Global Risks Report 2023 which seeks that the world be prepared for ‘Natural disasters and extreme weather events’ in the next two years.

What is Global Risk? It is defined as the possibility that something bad may happen which will affect all countries.

Key highlights:

In the next 2 years:  Cost of living; Natural disasters and extreme weather events; Geoeconomic confrontation

In the next 10 years: Failure to mitigate climate change; Biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse.

Major risks to India :  Digital inequality; geopolitical confrontation for resources, the rising cost of living, debt crisis, natural disasters and extreme weather events. Technologies such as AI, Quantum and Biotechnology are going to exacerbate the inequalities and digital divide ( if no action is taken to mitigate it)

Economic and geopolitical risks : Covid-19 and Ukraine war has resulted in rising inflation, rapid normalisation of monetary policies, low-growth and low-investment era

A miscalibration between monetary and fiscal policies will raise the likelihood of liquidity shocks, signalling a more prolonged economic downturn and debt distress on a global scale.

Geopolitical fragmentation will drive geoeconomic warfare and heighten the risk of multi-domain conflicts.

Data regarding Russia’s boreal forests –the biggest land-based carbon store on the planet – is no longer available for international scientific research because of the war in Ukraine.

Concurrent shocks, deeply interconnected risks and eroding resilience are giving rise to the risk of polycrises. ( one crisis leading to another and the overall impact far exceeds the sum of each part)

Food, fuel and cost crises exacerbate societal vulnerability while declining investments in human development erode future resilience. As volatility in multiple domains grows in parallel, the risk of polycrises accelerates

GLOBAL CARBON PROJECT :

The Global Carbon Project was formed in 2001 to help the international science community to establish a common, mutually agreed knowledge base that supports policy debate and action to slow the rate of increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

It is a Global Research Project of Future Earth and a research partner of the World Climate Research Programme. It was formed to work with the international science community to establish a common and mutually agreed knowledge base to support policy debate and action to slow down and ultimately stop the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, the World Climate Programme, the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas, under the Earth System Science Partnership.

DECLARATION OF CLIMATE EMERGENCY BY VARIOUS COUNTRIES:

What is Climate Emergency: Oxford Definition? Oxford dictionaries define climate emergency as “a situation in which urgent action is required to reduce or halt climate change and avoid potentially irreversible environmental damage resulting from it.”

Oxford says that the words soared from relative obscurity to one of the most prominent- and prominently debated- terms of 2019. The usage soared 10796% (i.e. more than 100 times)

World’s scientists warning of a climate emergency : A new report by 11258 scientists in 153 countries from a broad range of disciplines warns that the planet “clearly and unequivocally faces a climate emergency “ provides six broad policy goals that must be met to address it. It is the first time a large group of scientists has formally come out in favour of labelling climate change an emergency”

Key highlights:

• Despite 40 years of climate negotiations, we have largely failed to address this predicament.
• The EU has become the first multi-lateral bloc to declare a climate emergency, as its legislators voted in the favour of a resolution for the same.
• The symbolic move is expected to pressurise countries to be more active.
• In May 2019, the UK became the first national government to declare a climate emergency, days after similar declarations by Scotland and Wales.
• In June 2019, New York became the world’s largest city to declare a climate emergency in June.

 

UNFCCC (UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE) :

It is one of the three conventions adopted at the Rio Earth Summit (UN summit Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992. Its sister Rio Conventions are the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification. This was the first multilateral legal instrument on climate change and came into force in 1994 after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it.

ULTIMATE AIM of UNFCCC : Prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system by stabilising green-house gas concentration in the atmosphere. It sets on non- binding limits on greenhouse gas emission for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanism.

PARTIES TO CONVENTION:

197 PARTIES : All UN member states, Palestine (observer state), Niue and Cook Island (non-member states) and the European Union.

ANNEX 1 Parties– Industrialised OECD countries, Economies in Transition (EIT), EU

ANNEX 2 Parties– OECD members of Annex- 1 , no EIT. Provide financial and technical support to EITs and developing countries for mitigating Climate change.

Non- Annex 1 parties – Mostly developing

Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

Key significance of UNFCCC-

• Recognition of the problem.
• setting target of stabilising GHGs.
• Onus on Developed Countries.
• Funds and technology transfer to developing countries.
• Regular reporting – keep a tap on the problem.

 

KYOTO PROTOCOL : It was an international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It was negotiated under the UNFCCC during a meeting held in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997 and came into force in 2005 (due to complex ratification process)

The first commitment period was 2008-2012. The second commitment period begins 1 Jan 2013 to 2020. Launched by Doha Amendment (2012)

The objectives of the Kyoto Protocol included reducing greenhouse gas emissions through enforcement of compliance, promoting sustainable development through tech transfer and investment and encouraging developing countries and the private sector to contribute to emission reduction.

Parties to Kyoto Protocol:

Annex B : nearly identical to annex- I of the UNFCCC, agreed for emission reduction.

Non-Annex B parties : Countries which are not listed in Annex B of KP.

Key features :

The protocol operationalized the UNFCCC. It commits industrialised countries to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions based on the principles of the Convention.

Binding Emission targets for 38 industrialised countries and the European Community (Annex 1 parties) in its first commitment period.

Only bound developed countries Common but differentiated responsibility.

Flexible Architecture of Kyoto Protocol Regime to meet target.

Penalties for not meeting the targets.

3 Components :

• Carbon Trading,
• Clean Development Mechanisms and
• Joint Implementation.

What is the status of the Kyoto Protocol?

The protocol was ratified by 191 countries and EU Canada withdrew from the protocol in 2012. The US was the only country that signed the protocol and never ratified it.

Were targets met? Most countries didn’t meet the targets for emission reduction assigned for the first period of commitment (2008-2012). So the protocol’s impact was very small.

Kyoto Beyond 2012 : At Doha in 2012, the amendments to Kyoto Protocol for the 2^nd commitment period (the Doha Amendment) were successfully adopted for the period 2012-2020.

It never entered into force as the required number of countries didn’t deposit their instrument of accession. But some developed countries started implementing their commitments under the opt in provisions of the Doha Round.

Note: India ratified the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol in Jan 2017.

PARIS AGREEMENT AT COP 21 IN DEC 2015 : The Paris Agreement and the accompanying COP decisions are focused on enhancing efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change beyond 2020.

Long term Goal: Reaffirm the goal of limiting global temperature increase well below 2 degree Celsius, while urging efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees.

Two long term emission goals:

• Peaking of emission as soon as possible (with a recognition that it will take longer for developing countries)
• A goal of Net GreenHouse Gas Neutrality (expressed as a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks) in the second half of this century.

Ends the strict Differentiation between developed and developing countries: provides for a framework that commits all countries to put forward their best efforts against climate change and keep strengthening these efforts.

The agreement prescribes a set of binding procedural commitments:

To prepare communicate and maintain an NDC

To provide information necessary for clarity and transparency

To communicate a new NDC every five years. It also sets the expectation that “each successive NDC will represent a progression beyond the previous one and reflect a party’s highest possible ambition.”

The agreement commits parties to “pursue domestic measures with the aim of achieving the objectives” of its NDC.

Doesn’t make implementation or achievement of NDCs a binding obligation.

Some differentiation in expectation from developing and developed countries

Developed countries should undertake absolute economy wide reduction targets.

While developing countries are encouraged to move towards economy wide over time.

In addition developing countries would receive support (finance and technology) to implement their commitment.

Carbon Markets : Though the agreement avoided any direct reference to the use of markets based on approaches. It recognized that the parties may use internationally transferred mitigation outcomes to implement in NDCs.

Stock Take/ successive NDCs To ensure successive improvement in efforts, the agreement provides for two linked processes, each on a five-year cycle. Global Stock take to assess collective progress towards the agreement’s goals. The first global stock take will take place in 2023.

New NDCs every five years informed by the outcomes of the global stock take. Signatories should ensure that the new NDCs are more ambitious than the previous ones.

Support to poor developing countries: The agreement provides for developed countries to provide finance for mitigation and adaptation in developing countries (“in continuation of their existing obligation under the convention”) Other parties are encouraged to provide such support voluntarily.

Finance Mobilization goal: The COP decided to extend the $100 billion a year goal through 2025, and beyond that, by 2025 COP will set a “new collective quantified goal from a floor of $100 billion a year.”

When did the Paris Agreement of COP 21 enter into force? It required approval of at least 55 countries accounting for at least 55 percent of green-house gas emission. It came into force on Nov 4, 2016 (a month after the required number of ratification).

INDIA’S INTENDED NATIONALLY DETERMINED CONTRIBUTION :

Targets: India’s planned contribution.  India to reduce the Emissions Intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 from 2005 level.

Increase share of non-fossil fuel based energy resource to 40% of the installed electric power capacity by 2030 , with the help of transfer of technology and low cos international finance including from green climate fund(GCF).

Create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent , through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.

2015 NDC	Updated NDC
●        Cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil sources to reach 40%   ●        Reduce the emissions intensity of GDP by 33 to 35 % compared to 2005 levels.   ●        Creation of additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover	●        India now stands committed to reduce Emissions Intensity of its GDP by 45% by 2030, from 2005 level   ●        Achieve about 50% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources by 2030

 

APEX COMMITTEE FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PARIS AGREEMENT : The government of India has constituted the Apex Committee for the Implementation of the Paris Agreement (AIPA) on November 27,2020 through a gazette notification.

Its purpose is to ensure a coordinated response on climate change matters that protects the country’s interests and ensure that India is on track towards meeting its climate change obligations under the Paris Agreement including its submitted NDCs. AIPA with its 17 members has the responsibility of formulating policies and programs for implementing NDCs. It also has the responsibility of regularly communicating and reporting the NDCS to the UNFCCC. It will also define responsibilities of government ministries that will be crucial in achieving the country’s climate change mitigation and adaptation goals and submit a report every six months.

It will also act as a national authority for the regulation of carbon markets in India, under the article 6.2, Article 6.4 and Article 6.8 of the Paris Agreement

Structure :

• Chairperson: Secretary MoEF&CC
• Vice chairperson: Additional Secretary, MoEF&CC

CONTINUING UNFCCC NEGOTIATIONS: After the COP-21 Paris Agreement, the negotiations have continued COP- 22 (Marrakech Summit, 2018), COP-25 (Madrid Summit, 2019). COP 26 that was supposed to be held in Nov 2019 has been pushed to 2021. The UK hosted the COP 26 of UNFCCC in Glasgow on 31^st October- 12^th Nov 2021

Key outcomes:

The Glasgow climate pact :

The following were agreed upon in the Glasgow Climate Pact by the nations of the world:

Recognizing the emergency :

Countries reaffirmed the Paris Agreement goal of limiting the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit it to 1.5 °C.

Accelerating action :

Countries stressed the urgency of action when carbon dioxide emissions must be reduced by 45 percent to reach net-zero around mid-century. But with present climate plans and the Nationally determined Contributions are falling far short. Hence the Glasgow Climate Pact calls on all countries to present stronger national action plans next year, instead of in 2025, which was the original timeline.

Moving away from fossil fuels :

The countries agreed to a provision calling for a phase-down of coal power and a phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies – two key issues that had never been explicitly mentioned in decisions of UN climate talks before.

Delivering on climate finance :

Developed countries came to Glasgow falling short on their promise to deliver US$100 billion a year for developing countries and expressed confidence that the target would be met in 2023.

Stepping up support for adaptation :

The Glasgow Pact calls for a doubling of finance to support developing countries in adapting to the impacts of climate change and building resilience.

Completing the Paris rulebook :

Countries reached an agreement on the remaining issues of the so-called Paris rulebook, the operational details for the practical implementation of the Paris Agreement.

Focusing on Loss & Damage :

Acknowledging that climate change is having increasing impacts on people especially in the developing world, countries agreed to strengthen a network— known as the Santiago Network, that provides vulnerable countries with technical assistance, knowledge, and resources to address climate risks. They also launched a new “Glasgow dialogue” to discuss arrangements for the funding of activities to avert, minimise and address loss and damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change.

Key terms to know from COP 26 :

What is net-zero? Net-zero emissions pertain to achieving an overall balance between greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced, and GHG emissions removed from the atmosphere. A country can be said to be net-zero when it produces no emissions, either because it has actually phased out all emissions or because it is removing enough from the atmosphere to offset the emissions it releases. The latter can be achieved by restoring or increasing forest cover or through technologies such as carbon capture.

What is carbon neutrality? Carbon neutrality is a state of net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. It is achieved when anthropogenic CO2 emissions are balanced globally by anthropogenic CO2 removals over a specified period. There are several actions that an emitter can take to achieve this balance, such as reducing energy consumption and emissions-producing activities, improving energy efficiency processes, and consumption of renewable sources of energy. A nation or an organisation can also achieve carbon neutrality through carbon offsetting, a process of compensating for CO2 emissions it generates by participating in, or funding efforts to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. Offsetting usually involves paying another party, somewhere else, to save emissions equivalent to those produced by the emitter.

What is the carbon footprint? A carbon footprint measures the amount of CO2 equivalent a country, an industry, an individual, or a product emits or is responsible for. The footprint is calculated in both direct emissions (from the burning of fossil fuels, heating, and transportation), and indirect emissions during the whole lifecycle of products. It also includes emissions of other greenhouse gases, such as methane, nitrous oxide, or chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). It is expressed as a measure of weight, as in tons of CO2 or CO2 equivalent per year.

What are carbon credits? Carbon credits are a system of purchasing and trading carbon emissions to mitigate the growth in concentrations of global atmospheric CO2 levels. The term carbon credit usually refers to a tradable certificate or permit that shows a company, industry, or country, has paid to remove a certain amount of CO2 from the atmosphere.  This certificate gives them the right to emit 1 tonne of CO2 or the equivalent of different greenhouse gases. It is used by individuals or businesses to reduce their carbon footprint through investing in an activity that reduced, removed, or sequestered greenhouse gases at another site. The trading of carbon credits has turned them into a type of climate currency, subject to supply and demand, just like fiat currencies. Decisions on many issues have not been taken due to varied interests of different countries/ groups in negotiations.

Key areas being discussed include:

• Rules on how to measure and report emissions; measuring NDCs etc.
• This was finalised in COP- 24 (Katowice summit)
• Making targets more ambitious– with current targets the earth is moving towards a 3 degree C temperature rise.
• Mechanism for financing and technology transfer still needs to be finalised.
• Issues of market based mechanism is still a major bone of contention.
• Little progress has been made on assessment and transparency mechanism
• The issue of liability for damages caused by climate change is being insisted on by developing countries, but hasn’t been finalised yet.

 

CARBON MARKET DEBATE

What is the carbon market? It allows for buying and selling of carbon emissions with the objective of reducing global emissions.

The Carbon Market has existed under the Kyoto Protocol. The mechanisms for carbon market being proposed under the Paris Agreement are conceptually not very different, but are supposed to have more effective checks and balances and monitoring and verification processes.

Provisions related to carbon market in Paris Agreement : It is described under article 6 of the Paris Agreement.

Article 6.2 enables bilateral arrangements for transfer of emission reductions while ensuring that they don’t double count the reductions.

Article 6.4 talks about a wider carbon market in which reductions can be bought and sold by anyone.

Article 6.8 provides for making non- market approaches available to countries to achieve targets. It is still not clear what these approaches would constitute, but they would include any cooperative action, like collaboration on climate policy or common taxation that are not market based.

Key Contentions :

• What happens to carbon credits earned in the Kyoto regime but not sold yet, what constitutes double counting, and the transparency mechanisms to be put in place.
• Developing countries have several million CERs (Certified Emission Reduction) as they were not required to reduce emissions under Kyoto Regime. India has 750 million unsold CERs and India along with similar developing countries want this carbon credit to be valid in the new mechanisms too. Developed countries are opposed to it as rule and verification process under the Kyoto were not very robust. They want new mechanism to start on a clean slate.
• On the issue of double counting the developing countries agree that the country that reduced emissions should be able to show it even after selling the credits.

It is not necessary for the implementation of the Paris agreement. But with the world doing far less than what is required to prevent catastrophic impacts of climate change, the market can be an important tool to close the gap.

COP 27

Delegates from 197 countries (all are of the Paris Climate Accord) gathered at the 27th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP27).

They came together to find a solution to prevent global temperatures from reaching 2 degrees Celsius above the long-term average temperature between 1951 and 1980. The latest COP-27 edition convened in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt with the theme  “Together for Implementation” and to renew and extend the agreements reached in the historic Paris Agreement. 

What was on the agenda of COP27?

Mitigation: The goal of mitigation is to keep global temperatures below 2 degrees Celsius. However, despite making big commitments such as the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), progress since COP26 has been severely inadequate (Emissions Gap Report 2022).

Adaptation: According to the Global Climate Risk Index, developing and poor countries (Mozambique, South Sudan, India, etc.) were the countries most affected by extreme weather events in 2019. Over $350 million and $600 million were pledged to the Adaptation Fund and the Least Developed Countries Fund, at COP26. These efforts, however, must be backed up by political will.

Finance: At the 2009 COP15 meeting, developed countries agreed to pledge $100 billion per year by 2020 (extended until 2025 during COP21) to assist developing countries in dealing with climate change. However, this has not occurred.

Collaboration: There is the need to call upon governments, public society and the private sector to collaborate to change the way humans interact with the world.

Major Positive Outcomes of COP27

1. The Sharm el-Sheikh Implementation Plan: It emphasised that a global transition to a low-carbon economy will require at least $4-6 trillion in annual spending.
2. Mitigation work programme: This would begin this year and last until 2030. Governments were requested –

To revisit and strengthen the 2030 targets in their national climate plans by the end of 2023.

To accelerate efforts to phase down unabated coal power and phase out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies.

To reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs) in applicable sectors through increased renewable and low-emission energy.

3. Loss and damage Fund:  Developing countries have been seeking financial assistance for loss and damage – money needed to rescue and rebuild the physical and social infrastructure of countries devastated by extreme weather – for nearly three decades.
   

Finally achieving agreement on a fund is a major milestone. Now comes the difficult part – the fund must be set up, and filled with cash. There is no agreement yet on how finance should be provided and where it should come from.

The CMA (countries who have signed and ratified the Paris Agreement) also adopted Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, which allows countries to voluntarily cooperate with each other to achieve emission reduction targets set out in their NDCs.

4. World Bank reform: A growing number of developed and developing countries are calling for urgent changes to the World Bank and other publicly funded finance institutions, which they say have failed to provide the funding needed to help poor countries cut their greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of the climate crisis.

Reform of this kind was widely discussed at Cop27 which could involve a recapitalisation of the development banks to allow them to provide far more assistance to the developing world.

5. Adaptation commitment reaffirmed : Building flood defences, preserving wetlands, restoring mangrove swamps and regrowing forests – these measures, and more, can help countries to become more resilient to the impacts of climate breakdown.

But poor countries often struggle to gain funding for these efforts. Of the $100bn a year rich countries promised they would receive from 2020 – a promise still not fulfilled – only about $20bn goes to adaptation. In Glasgow, countries agreed to double that proportion, but at Cop27 some sought to remove that commitment. After some struggle, it was reaffirmed.

6. First High-Level Expert Group Report: The highlights of the meeting included the launch of the first report of the High-Level Expert Group on the Net-Zero Emissions Commitments of Non-State Entities.

The report slammed ‘greenwashing’ – misleading the public to believe that a company or entity is doing more to protect the environment than it is – and weak net-zero pledges and provided a roadmap to bring integrity to net-zero commitments by industry, financial institutions, cities and regions and to support a global, equitable transition to a sustainable future.

7. Launch of Executive Early Warnings for All initiative: Also during the Conference, the UN announced the Executive Action Plan for the Early Warnings for All initiative, which calls for initial new targeted investments of $ 3.1 billion between 2023 and 2027, equivalent to a cost of just 50 cents per person per year.

8. Launch Master plans to accelerate decarbonization: Another highlight of the conference was a so-called master plan to accelerate the decarbonization of five major sectors – power, road transport, steel, hydrogen, and agriculture – presented by the COP27 Egyptian Presidency.
   

9. The FAST initiative : The Egyptian leadership also announced the launch of the Food and Agriculture for Sustainable Transformation initiative or FAST, to improve the quantity and quality of climate finance contributions to transform agriculture and food systems by 2030.

10. Tipping points and Health:  Since Cop26, the IPCC has published the key parts of its latest vast assessment of climate science, warning of catastrophic impacts that can only be averted by sharp and urgent cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. A reference to the key finding of “tipping points” was put in.

These include the heating of the Amazon, which could turn the rainforest into a savannah, transforming it from a carbon sink to a carbon source, and the melting of permafrost that releases the powerful greenhouse gas methane. Also inserted was a reference to “the right to a clean healthy and sustainable environment”

Long Term-Low Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS) : India announced its LT-LEDS, a roadmap to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070. The plan focuses on strategic transition of high-emission sectors and a discussion of India’s climate adaptation needs. India is the 58th country to submit its plans to the UNFCCC.

 In Our LIFEtime campaign : It was jointly launched by India and UNDP to encourage youth between the ages of 18 to 23 years to become message bearers of sustainable lifestyles. It also aims to foster responsible consumption patterns and influence the lifestyle choices of the younger generations to make them Pro-Planet-People.

Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) : The concept of Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) was introduced by Indian PM during UNFCCC – COP26 at Glasgow in 2021. LiFE is an international mass movement to protect and preserve the environment. LiFE envisions replacing the prevalent ‘use-and-dispose’ economy with a circular economy.

Leadership for Industry Transition (LeadIT) Summit : It was launched by Sweden and India at the UN Climate Action Summit in 2019 and is supported by the World Economic Forum. India and Sweden hosted the LeadIT Summit 2022 at COP27. The LeadIT initiative focuses on low carbon transition of the hard to abate industrial sector. It gathers countries and companies that are committed to action to achieve the Paris Agreement.

MoEFCC – UNDP Compendium : India launched the MoEFCC – UNDP Compendium “Prayaas Se Prabhaav Tak – From mindless consumption to mindful utilization’’ on the sidelines of COP27.

BASIC Ministerial Meet : Ministers of Brazil, South Africa, India and China (BASIC Countries) pledged their full support for substantial progress towards the establishment of a finance mechanism for Loss and Damage. The principle of Common But Different Responsibilities (CBDR) and respective capabilities was emphasised.

Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) : Mangrove Alliance for Climate (MAC) is an intergovernmental alliance that works on a voluntary basis for planting, conserving and restoring mangroves. Members – MAC is led by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Indonesia and includes India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Japan, and Spain. Aim – To educate and spread awareness worldwide on the role of mangroves in curbing global warming and its potential as a solution for climate change.

Other International Efforts

Climate ambition alliance:

It is a multi- stakeholder alliance of countries and non- state actors that aim to accelerate the transformation needed to meet the goals of Paris Agreement on Climate change and stabilise the global average temperature rises at 1.5 degree Celsius above pre-industrial levels. The alliance was first launched in Sep 2019, at Climate Action Summit in Chile.

 The member countries have agreed to submit enhanced NDCs by 2020. The alliance will also strengthen its work on adaptation and the development of private sector. The 73 countries, 14 regions, 398 cities, 786 businesses are working towards achieving net- zero CO2 emissions by 2050.

 This demonstrate that both state and non state actors recognize the significance of more ambitious target to address the climate change emergency. Chile and the United Kingdom will also be working towards mobilising additional actors to join the alliance on the road towards COP 26.

For mitigation, the climate ambition alliance will focus oin the submission of enhanced NDCs; reaching new commitment to achieve net zero emission by 2050 and the implementation of measures to strengthen the protection of forests and oceans. For Adaptation, the alliance will focus on strong actions to improve the management of water, resilience in infrastructure and the sustainability of cities.

 Leaders’ summit on Climate

Why in news?

On April 22 and 23 ,2021, the US president brought together 40 world leaders in a virtual Leaders summit on Climate to rally the world in tackling the climate change.

Key highlights: India-US Clean Energy Agenda 2030 Partnership:

About: It is a joint climate and clean energy initiative of India with the US.It will demonstrate how the world can align swift climate action with inclusive and resilient economic development, taking into account national circumstances and sustainable development priorities.

Objective:

Mobilise investments, demonstrate clean technologies and enable green collaborations in India that could also create templates of sustainable development for other developing countries.

Two Main Tracks of the Initiative:

• The Strategic Clean Energy Partnership.
• The Climate Action and Finance Mobilization Dialogue.

US’ Stand:

Pledged :To cut the US’s GreenHouse Gas (GHG) in half by the year 2030 and called upon other nations to “set higher climate ambitions” that will create jobs at home, advance innovative technologies and help countries vulnerable to the impact of climate change.

To double its public climate financing to developing countries and triple public financing for climate adaptation in developing countries by 2024.

NDC:It submitted a new Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) target that aims to reduce its GHG emissions by 50-52% below 2005 levels.

The US has rejoined the Paris Agreement.

Applauded: India for stepping up its climate change commitment including the partnership with the US to deploy 450 giga watts of renewable power to meet the ambitious 2030 target for climate action and clean energy.

China’s Stand:

Carbon Neutrality: Its carbon emissions will peak before 2030 and the country will achieve carbon neutrality by 2060.
Promoted its green Belt and Road Initiative and announced efforts to “strictly control coal-fired power generation projects” and phase down coal consumption.

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities: It also emphasised on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, which argues for long-time polluters such as developed countries to do more to fight the climate crisis.

India’s Stand :

Emissions:
India was already doing its part and that the country’s per capita carbon emissions are 60% lower than the global average.

Commitment:

• India’s ambitious renewable energytarget of 450 GW by 2030.
• Despite its development challenges, India has taken many bold steps on clean energy, energy efficiency, afforestationand biodiversity. India is among few countries whose NDCs are 2°C compatible.

Emphasis:
Emphasised its encouragement of global initiatives such as the International Solar Alliance and the Coalition for Disaster Resilience Infrastructure.

LEAF (Lowering Emission By Accelerating Forest Finance Coalition)

Why in News: LEAF coalition was launched to mobilise more than $1 billion to protect tropical forest and enhance global climate action.

Details: The coalition is a public private effort (includes government and private companies) to protect tropical rain forests. It aims to mobilise at least $1 billion in financing for the protection of forests. This fund offered to countries committed to arrest the decline of their

Governments involved include the USA,UK and Norway.

Companies include Unilever plc,Amazon.Com,Nestle ,Airbnb.

A US based NGO -Emergent

It was announced at the Leaders Summit on Climate in April 2021.

Significance:

• Afforestation – It will capture extensive deforestation and provide livelihood opportunities to forest dependent population.
• Concretises the aims of REDD+ It will help developing countries in batting the double edged sword of developed versus ecological commitment
• Helps developed countries’ private sector to stock up their carbon credit.

PETERSBURG CLIMATE DIALOGUE::

It is a dialogue which has been hosted by Germany since, 2010. It provides a platform for informal climate change. It is an annual high level political and international forum, held before the United Nation Climate Change Conferences

Aim:

• The forum aims to prepare for successful negotiations at COP climate change conferences.
• The central goal is to strengthen trust in multilateral climate negotiations and between states.
• The dialogue focuses on climate adaptation, climate finance, and dealing with loss and damage.

 

Why in the News?

The Petersberg Dialogue on Climate Change was hosted in Berlin, Germany from May 2-3, 2023, by Germany and the United Arab Emirates, which is hosting the 28th Conference of Parties (COP28) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

What are the Key Takeaways from the Petersburg Climate Dialogue?

Need for Clean Energy Transition: UN Secretary-General emphasized the need to “break our fossil fuel addiction and drive decarbonisation in every sector” to achieve a 1.5°C global warming pathway.

Global Renewables Target: German Foreign Minister initiated discussions around a potential global target for renewables at the next climate conference. And stressed the need to make sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions to limit global warming to 1.5°C.

Fossil Fuel Phase-out: COP28 President called for a tripling of renewable energy capacity by 2030 followed by a doubling in 2040. And urged participants to ramp up renewable energy capacity building and focus on phasing out fossil fuel emissions while phasing up viable, affordable zero-carbon alternatives.

Status of Climate Finance: The developed countries are “on a good track” to deliver the USD 100 billion per year they had promised to mobilize by 2020 during COP15 in 2009.

However, a recent estimate pegs climate finance needs at 1 trillion USD annually by 2030 for emerging markets alone, highlighting the urgent need for financial reparations.

Urgent Global Financial Systems Transformation: The need for an urgent global financial systems transformation was underlined so that crucial climate finance can be unlocked for the most climate vulnerable countries in the world.

The burden of keeping global temperatures from rising beyond 1.5°C cannot fall on the poorest countries, who are least responsible for the stock of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Global Stock take: 2023 is the year for the Global Stocktake, which aims to assess whether current efforts will enable us to reach the objectives set out in the Paris Agreement. The report has been underway for the past two years and is set to be released in September of 2023.

Union Minister for the Indian Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, stated that the outcome of the first Global Stocktake should focus on how climate change impacts, actions, and responses have a bearing on the developmental priorities of developing countries, including eradication of poverty. It should also seek to convey a message on sustainable lifestyles and sustainable consumption to inform the next round of Nationally Determined Contributions and enhanced international cooperation.

EUROPEAN GREEN DEAL/ EU CARBON NEUTRALITY :

The European union has released its “ European Green Deal” describing it, a roadmap to make the blocs economy sustainable

Details of the deal :

• The key aim of the programme is to make EU carbon neutral 2050 and reduce EUs greenhouse gas emission reductions, target for the year 2030 by at least 50%and towards 55% compared to the levels of 1990s.

• The deal covers all economic sector Including transport, agriculture, energy and building.

• In addition, a Euro hundred billion “ just transition mechanism” is said to be established in order to support” those regions that rely heavily on very carbon.

• A law will be passed by the European Parliament that will set the EU “ on an irreversible path to climate neutrality.

• A plan to promote a more circular economy- a system design to eliminate waste- that would address more sustainable products as well as a farm to fork strategy to improve the sustainability of food, production and distribution.

• Withdrawal of Poland : Poland, which is heavily reliant on cool Has decided to stay out of the deal as it is heavily dependent on coal and thus wanted a deadline of 2070 in order to reach the target of carbon neutrality.

• Shift to Nuclear Energy could be included in the final list as one of the mitigation mechanisms.

 50 YEARS OF STOCKHOLM CONFERENCE :

Why in the news ?

Recently, Stockholm+50 meeting was held at Stockholm, Sweden to commemorate the 50 years since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference), which made the environment a pressing global issue for the first time.

Stockholm+50 theme: A healthy planet for the prosperity of all — our responsibility, our opportunity.

Stockholm+50 agenda:

• To share experiences and initiatives to protect the planet.
• Sustainable recovery from the COVID -19 pandemic.

About Stockholm conference : UN’s first major conference on international environmental issues. Organised in 1972 to coordinate global efforts to promote sustainability and safeguard the natural environment with the theme ‘Only One Earth’.  122 countries adopted the Stockholm Declaration on 26 principles and an action plan.

3 dimensions of the conference :

• Countries agreeing not to harm each other’s environment or the areas beyond national jurisdiction;
• Action plan to study the threat to Earth’s environment; and
• Establishment of an international body called the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) to bring in cooperation among countries.

Other outcome & success of Stockholm Conference o Identification of a theme of sustainable development: 20 years later, the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development – the Earth Summit – in Rio de Janeiro defined sustainable development.

Establishing Key Principles

• Precautionary principle: The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was the first multilateral environmental agreement (MEA) that codified precautionary measures in 1985.
• Polluter-pays principle (PPP): Those producing pollution should bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health and the environment.

Stockholm 50+ Recommendations for actionable agenda :

• Placing human well-being at the centre of a healthy planet and prosperity for all.
• Recognizing and implementing the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment.
• Adopting system wide changes in our current economic system.
• Accelerate transformations of high impact sectors.
• Help developing countries tackle environmental challenges by providing access and support for digital and technological solutions.

FIRST MOVERS COALITION :

It is a public-private partnership launched by the World Economic Forum in partnership with US and over 30 global businesses. It brings together global companies, with supply chains across carbon-intensive sectors, to invest in innovative green technologies so they are available for massive scale-up by 2030 to enable net-zero emissions by 2050.

A global initiative harnessing the purchasing power of companies to decarbonize 7 “hard to abate” industrial sectors.Includes Aluminum, Aviation, Chemicals, Concrete, Shipping, Steel, and Trucking sectors accounting for 30% of global emissions. Seeks to commercialise zero-carbon technologies and to scale up critical emerging technologies essential for the Net-Zero Transition.

CLIMATE AND CLEAN AIR COALITION

The Climate and Clean Air Coalition is a voluntary partnership of governments, intergovernmental organisations, businesses, scientific institutions and civil society organisations committed to improving air quality and protecting the climate through actions to reduce short-lived climate pollutants.

Its global network currently includes over 120 state and non-state partners, and hundreds of local actors carrying out activities across economic sectors.

What are short-lived climate pollutants? Short-lived climate pollutants are those pollutants which are short lived in atmosphere. They are also known as Super Pollutants. Methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are some examples of short lived pollutants.

They are many times more powerful than carbon dioxide at warming the planet.

But because they are short-lived in the atmosphere, preventing emissions can rapidly reduce the rate of warming.

What is the Approach of CCAC to reduce short-lived climate pollutants?

The Coalition’s partners and initiative participants work in cooperation with key short-lived climate pollutant emitters and other stakeholders from around the world to encourage, enable and catalyse action to reduce emissions. To achieve real and ambitious reductions, the Coalition focuses on four key strategies:

• Enable transformative action by providing knowledge, resources, and technical and institutional capacity to act and supporting the sharing of information, experience, and expertise.
• Mobilise support for action to put short-lived climate pollutants on the policy map through advocacy at all levels of government and in the private sector and civil society.
• Increase the availability of and access to financial resources to support the successful implementation of scalable, transformational action.
• Enhance scientific knowledge to help decision-makers scale up action and promote the multiple benefits of action on short-lived climate pollutants.

Funding of CCAC : The Coalition’s activities are financed through a multi-donor The Climate and Clean Air Trust Fund, established in 2012, which is administered through UN Environment. While governments are the core of the Coalition’s funding, contributions from the private sector and global community are encouraged.

Goal of CCAC: The Coalition’s goal is to reduce short-lived climate pollutants beyond the recommendations made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its special report Global Warming of 1.5°C.

What are the recommendations made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?

According to the report, there needs to be considerable cuts in emissions of black carbon (35 percent by 2030), methane (37 per cent by 2030) and HFCs (70 per cent to 80 per cent by 2050) if the world is to keep global warming below 1.5?C.

Benefits of increasing action on short-lived climate pollutants:

• It can avoid an estimated 2.4 million premature deaths from outdoor air pollution annually by 2030/.
• It can prevent as much as 52 million tonnes of crop losses per year, and slow the increase in global warming by as much as 0.6°C by 2050.
• It can also prevent the climate tipping points that can exacerbate long-term climate impacts and make adapting to climate change harder, especially for the poor and most vulnerable.

 

India and CCAC : India formally joined the Climate & Clean Air Coalition (CCAC), becoming the 65th country to join the partnership. India plans to work with Climate Clean and Coalition countries on best practices and experiences for the effective implementation of India’s National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).

INTERNATIONAL SOLAR ALLIANCE :

Why in the News?

UN General Assembly (UNGA) confers Observer Status on the International Solar Alliance (ISA)

Granting of the status would help provide for a well-defined cooperation between the Alliance and UN that would benefit global energy growth and development. It will also provide a choice to ISA to have permanent office in the UN HQ (New York).

About the Observer status of the UN  : It started in 1946 with the Swiss Government as the first permanent observer; a number of regional and international organisations are given observer status by UNGA. Other observers include non-member states (e.g. Holy See); Intergovernmental and other organisations (e.g. ISA by resolution 76/123); and Specialized Agencies (e.g. FAO).

About ISA : It was launched at the Paris Climate Change Conference in 2015 by the President of France and the Prime Minister of India.

It is a multi-country partnership organisation with membership from solar resource rich countries between the two tropics, where the global community can make a positive contribution towards increasing the use of solar energy. It has now been decided to extend the membership of the alliance to all the UN member states.

The body aims to scale up solar energy applications, take coordinated action through programmes and activities launched on a voluntary basis and facilitate collaborative research and development activities in solar energy technologies. Each Member shares and updates, for those solar applications for which it seeks the benefits of collective action under the ISA.

Till October 2021, 101 countries have signed the ISA Framework Agreement and 80 countries have signed and ratified the ISA Framework Agreement.  At the COP26 in Glasgow, US announced joining the ISA as its 101st member.

Note : ISA is the first international organisation headquartered in India.

INITIATIVES TAKEN BY ISA

Green Grids Initiative – One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG):

It was launched by India at the global climate conference COP26 with an aim to harness solar energy wherever the Sun is shining, ensuring that generated electricity flows to areas that need it most.  ISA partnered with Bloomberg Philanthropies to mobilise $1 trillion in global investments for solar energy across ISA’s member countries.

Global Energy Alliance for People and Planet (GEAPP) launched at COP26 with USD10 billion of committed capital to accelerate investment in green energy transitions and renewable energy solutions in developing and emerging economies.

ISA’s Programme on Scaling Solar Applications for Agriculture Use (SAAU) focuses on providing greater energy access and a sustainable irrigation solution to farmers through deployment of Solar Water Pumping Systems in member countries. 

Forest Carbon Credit Stamps:

China has issued its first batch of forest carbon credit stamps to use market mechanisms to reduce carbon emissions. Forest carbon credits stamps are permits for companies to emit a certain amount of carbon dioxide. They are converted from added forest areas and the amount of carbon they can capture. These credits can also serve as collateral for bank credit and loans. The forest carbon credit system harbours great potential amid China’s pursuit of peaking carbon emissions by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2060. 

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) : 

As part of the European Union (EU) ambitious target of reducing 55% of carbon emissions compared to 1990 levels by 2030 (Fit for 55 Initiative), it is pushing for the world’s first carbon border tax on imported goods- Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) from 2026. It seeks to address carbon leakages i.e. companies decamp to places with cheaper pollution costs and looser climate regulations.

A carbon border tax is a tax on carbon emissions imposed on imported goods from countries with less strict climate policies. It aims to create a level playing field between imports and domestic production.

 Climate Action and Finance Mobilization Dialogue (CAFMD):

CAFMD is one of the two main tracks (other track is strategic clean energy partnership) of the US-India Agenda 2030 partnership that was announced in April 2021.

 CAFMD will have three pillars:

• Climate action pillar to look at ways to reduce emissions in the next decade.
• Pillar for setting out a roadmap to achieve 450 GW renewable energy (RE) in transportation, buildings and industry.
• Finance Pillar to collaborate on attracting finance to deploy 450 GW of RE and demonstrate at scale clean energy technologies.

Clean Energy Ministerial’s (CEM) – Industrial Deep Decarbonization Initiative (IDDI)

Launched by- India and UK.  IDDI is a global coalition of public and private organisations who are working to stimulate demand for low carbon industrial materials. It is coordinated by UNIDO and countries like Germany and Canada have also joined the initiative.

It works to :

• Standardise carbon assessments.
• Establish ambitious public and private sector procurement targets.
• Incentivise investment into low-carbon product development and design industry guidelines.
• It brings together a strong coalition of related initiatives and organisations to tackle carbon intensive construction materials such as steel and cement.

Water and Climate Coalition:

The Water and Climate Coalition is a multi-stakeholder initiative to provide tangible action, activities and policy support, for an integrated water and climate agenda with a special focus on data, information, monitoring systems and operational capacity. WCC is open for a wide range of members from scientific organisations, private sector, NGOs, UN Organizations, governments and the civil society that are on equal footing to generate momentum through implementing concrete hydrological activities at national, regional and global scale.  Its Secretariat is hosted within the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

 Earthshot Prize 2021:

Indian agri-waste recycling project has won Prince William’s Earthshot Prize 2021. The Earthshot Prize is an award set up by Prince William and the Royal Foundation, the charity founded by the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, and historian David Attenborough to honour five finalists between 2021 and 2030 for developing solutions to fight the climate crisis.

Established in 2020, 2021 was the first year when awards were handed out to finalists for their contributions towards the five UN Sustainable Development Goals — restoration and protection of nature, air cleanliness, ocean revival, waste-free living and climate action.

Major Economies Forum (MEF) on climate and Energy :

MEF meeting was aimed to build on the progress achieved at COP 26 by further strengthening climate action while also addressing urgent energy and food security concerns arising from the Russia-Ukraine war.  Launched in 2009 by the US President.

 Aim:

• Facilitating dialogue among major emitting countries, both developed and developing, to advance efforts against climate change.
• Major Participating countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, EU, France, Germany, India, Japan, UK etc.
• Together they account for roughly 80% of global GDP and global GHG emissions.

Global Methane Pledge Energy Pathway:  Tackling methane leaks, venting, and flaring from the oil and gas sector.

• Collective 2030 Zero-Emission Vehicle Goal and Green Shipping Challenge to reduce emissions in the transport sector.
• Clean Energy Technologies Demonstration Challenge to break dependence on fossil fuels.
• Efforts to Enhance Food Security by Increasing fertiliser efficiency.
• India also called upon the members of MEF to launch a global movement on LiFE.

Global Alliance for Industry Decarbonization :

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), co-founding partner Siemens Energy, and 13 companies including Tata Steel and Jindal Steel Works have launched Global Alliance for Industry Decarbonization.

Decarbonisation: Process of reducing anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Formed under Bali Declaration.

 Aim: To accelerate net-zero ambitions and decarbonization of industrial value chains in pursuit of Paris Agreement climate goals. Will strengthen dialogue and coordinate action by industrial stakeholders from across the public and private sectors. First meeting of Alliance to take place at UNFCCC COP27.

The focus is to support the ongoing scientific projects on climate change, geology, ocean observation, electric and magnetic flux measurements, environmental monitoring, resupplying of food, fuel provisions and spare; and accomplishing the return of the winter crew.

It will leave behind 40 of the members and bring back the winter team of the preceding trip.

India is committed to maintaining the continent of Antarctica free of COVID-19. The expedition duly followed all protocols for the deployment of men and material as per Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP). Extra precautions of sanitising the Cargo, mandatory fourteen days of quarantine (pre- and post- expedition), and RT-PCR testing before boarding the ice class vessel is also being conducted. The Chartered ice class vessel MV Vasiliy Golovnin made this journey and reached Antarctica in 30 days. 

MOSAIC EXPEDITION (MULTIDISCIPLINARY DRIFTING OBSERVATORY FOR THE STUDY OF ARCTIC CLIMATE)

Why in the News? MOSAIC Arctic Expedition reaches north pole. (Sep 2020) India’s Dr. Vishnu Nandan, a remote sensing scientist from Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala is the only Indian among 300 researchers to join the largest Arctic expedition in history (Oct 2019). 

About MOSAIC Expedition: MOSAIC is the first year round expedition into the central Arctic exploring the Arctic Climate system. This project for the first time is taking a modern research icebreaker laden with scientific instruments close to the North Pole in Winters. The total budget of the project is 140 million Euro and has been designed by an international consortium of leading polar research institutions, led by Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) etc. The name MOSAIC (Multidiscipline drifting Observatory for the study of Article Climate) mirrors the complexity and diversity of this expedition.

Aim of the expedition is to parameterize the atmospheric, geophysical, oceanographic and all other possible variables in the Arctic, and use it to more accurately forecast the changes in our weather systems.

COASTAL EROSION

Why in the news? About 32% of the Indian Coastline is under varying degree of erosion (low, moderate, or high), 27 percent is of accreting nature and the remaining 41 percent is in a stable state: Union Minister of Fisheries, animal husbandry and dairying- Parshottam Rupala (Aug 2021)

What is Coastal Erosion? It is the wearing away of land and the removal of beach and dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, drainage or high winds. Wave action includes hydraulic action, attrition, solution, corrasion, corrosion.

Factors that influence Erosion Rates The ability of waves to cause erosion of the cliff face depends on many factors :

Primary factors –

• Erodibility of sea facing rock is controlled by rock strength and the presence of fissures, fractures and beds of non- cohesive materials such as silt and fine sand.
• Power of the waves
• Beaches (they dissipate wave energy on the foreshore and provide a measure of protection to adjoining land)
• The Adjacent bathymetry, or configuration of the sea floor, controls the way energy arrives at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of cliff erosion.
• Rising Sea levels Globally has been greatly affecting coastal erosion.

 

Secondary Factors –

• Weathering and transport slope processes.
• Slope hydrology
• Vegetation
• Human Activity
• Resistance of cliff foot sediment to attrition and transport.

Tertiary Factors –

• Resources Extraction
• Coastal management

Impact of Coastal Erosion:

• Floods including worsening impact of high tide flooding.
• Saltwater penetration into rivers, coastal agriculture plains.

Coastal Erosion Control Strategies: There are three coastal erosion control methods.

Hard Erosion Controls: More Permanent solution than soft erosion methods. Seawalls and groynes (or groyne) severe as permanent infrastructure. Limitations– Refurbishment or rebuilt; interferes with natural water currents; prevents sand from shifting along coastlines; erosion in adjacent beaches and dunes.

Soft Erosion Controls :  These methods are temporary options of slowing the effects of erosion. These options include sandbag and beach bulldozing which allows for the creation of artificial dunes in front of buildings or as means of preserving building foundation. Most common method is the Beach nourishment projects. It involves placing additional sand on a beach to serve as a buffer against erosion or to enhance the recreational value of the beach. Because nourishment doesn’t stop erosion, it has to be repeated to maintain the beach.

Advantages :

• Restores and widens recreational beach.
• Structure behind the beach is protected as long as the added sand remains.
• Beach nourishment doesn’t leave hazards on the beach or on the surf zone.

Disadvantages :

• Smaller life- continuous refurbishing required; expensive.
• Differences in grain size of the added sand affect surf conditions and bars on the submerged part of the beach.

Relocation : Human beings move away from the coast and surrender the coast to natural processes of both absolute and relative sea level rise and erosion. This solution is eco- centric meaning that the focus is on forcing humans to adapt to natural processes rather than the opposite.

Situation of Coastal Erosion in India : About 32% of India’s coastline is under varying degree of erosion (low, moderate or high), 27% is of accreting nature and remaining 41% is in stable state: As told in Parliament by Union Minister of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.