ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

LAND DEGRADATION

Land degradation is any reduction or loss in the biological or economic productive capacity of the land resource base. Natural processes play a part, but humans cause most of the damage. Often, the process of degradation is inextricably linked to loss of biodiversity and the impacts of climate change.

Classification of Degradation

1. Physical Degradation: Includes erosion, soil organic carbon loss, and changes in soil’s physical structure (e.g., compaction, waterlogging).
   • Globally, soil erosion is the most significant land degradation process, resulting in the removal of topsoil. Soil productivity is depleted due to reduced rooting depth, loss of plant nutrients, and physical loss of topsoil.
2. Chemical Degradation: Refers to leaching, salinization, fertility depletion, acidification, and nutrient imbalances.
3. Biological Degradation: Implies the loss of vegetation, rangeland degradation, and loss of biodiversity, including soil organic matter.

Causes of Land Degradation

1. Agriculture

• Excessive Cultivation: Can cause imbalances in the quantity of certain nutrients in the soil, adversely affecting vegetation.
• Excessive Use of Fertilizers: Increased application of fertilizers and pesticides (needed to boost farm output on new lands) leads to soil pollution and a loss of soil fertility.
• Shifting Cultivation: Practices such as Jhum cultivation in Nagaland, and slash-and-burn methods alter the basic geography of regions, degrading the land in the long term.
• Waterlogging: Excessive irrigation and improper drainage facilities in fields cause groundwater levels with high salt content to rise, leading to soil salinity.
• Soil Erosion: The process by which topsoil is detached from the land and either washed away by water, ice, sea waves, or blown away by wind.
• Soil Pollution: Leads to the loss of organic matter and changes in soil structure.
• Crop Rotation: Improper crop rotation deprives the soil of specific nutrients, leading to changes in soil structure.
• Soil Acidification: The formation of acid sulfate soils results in barren soil.
• Soil Alkalinization: Irrigation with water containing sodium bicarbonate results in poor soil structure and reduced crop yields.

2. Environmental Causes

• Deforestation: Forests play an important role in maintaining soil fertility by shedding leaves that contain nutrients. Cutting down forests adversely affects soil health.
• Overgrazing: The introduction of herbivores like rabbits and goats, which eat away vegetation, leaves land more prone to erosion. (Example: Gujarat)
• Natural Causes: Includes earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts, avalanches, landslides, volcanic eruptions, floods, tornadoes, and wildfires.
• Climate Change: Climate change exacerbates land degradation. The global food system contributes approximately 25–30% of all greenhouse gas emissions.

3. Geographic Causes

• Wind Erosion: Depletion of forests leads to soil particle loosening due to a lack of roots and moisture in the soil.
• Water Erosion: Includes sheet erosion, rill erosion, and others, leading to the significant loss of topsoil and nutrients through runoff water.
• Wasteland: Includes barren land, waterlogged areas, marshlands, saline lands, forest land, degraded land, strip land, and mining/industrial wastelands.
• Desertification: Desertification results from or leads to land degradation. Advancing desert sand into adjoining regions is a hallmark of this process.
  • Example: Particularly severe in regions adjoining the Thar Desert in Rajasthan.

4. Anthropogenic Causes

• Urbanization: Encroachment of land for urban purposes changes landforms and leads to the concretization of land, degrading its quality.
• Increasing Population: Growing economic demand for agricultural land results in deforestation, over-cultivation, insufficient crop rotation, and overuse of agrochemicals. These practices prioritize short-term production to meet population demands.
• Mining: Excessive mining triggers soil erosion and worsens water scarcity.
  • Example: Jharkhand.

Effects of Land Degradation

1. Economic Impacts

• Loss of GDP: In 2014–15, land degradation and its associated reduction in productivity decreased India’s GDP growth by 2.5%, equivalent to approximately USD 50 billion.
• Loss of Arable Land: Reduced agricultural output at the state level.
• Increase in Farm Inputs: Infertile land requires higher fertilizers and irrigation inputs, increasing costs.
• Lack of Access to Resources: Degraded land limits communities’ ability to use it effectively and restricts access to essential resources.
• Livestock Deaths: Loss of grazing lands and vegetation affects local livestock and animals.
• Food Security: Decline in agricultural productivity reduces buffer stocks, adversely affecting public distribution systems.
• Increase in Wastelands: Land rendered unusable will reduce availability for farming and other purposes.

2. Social Impacts

• Poverty: Degraded regions are more vulnerable to poverty as livelihoods are affected.
  • Example: Farmers may abandon their lands due to certifications and loss of income.
• Climate Refugees: Land degradation can render land unsuitable for habitation or cultivation, forcing migrations.
  • Example: As many as 700 million people in highly affected regions may have no choice but to migrate by 2050.

• Gender Violence: Degraded land reduces the capability of women to collect essential household resources, leading to an increase in domestic violence and crime.
• Rights of Indigenous People: Insecure land tenure limits the ability of communities to fight climate change, which is further exacerbated by land degradation.

3. Environmental Impacts

• Desertification: A consequence of severe land degradation that creates arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas.
• Loss of Vegetation: Reduced soil fertility leads to the loss of vegetation in affected areas.
• Threat to Biodiversity: Some species adapt to environmental changes, but others may become extinct, threatening local biodiversity.
• Propagation of Invasive Species: Degraded areas are prone to invasive species that struggle for scarce resources, often leading to the extinction of native species.
• Natural Disasters: Increased risks of floods and erosion, leading to the formation of gullies.
• Water Crisis: Sodic soils form an impermeable crust, reducing water infiltration and leading to water scarcity.
• Geographical Effects: Sand drifts and accumulates on fertile agricultural land, degrading its quality.

Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)

1. Definition (According to UNCCD): “A state where the amount and quality of land resources necessary to support ecosystem functions and services, and enhance food security, remains stable or increases within specified temporal and spatial scales and ecosystems.”
2. Emergence of Concept: Originated during the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in 2012.
3. Sustainable Development Goal (SDG): In 2015, LDN was integrated into SDG 15: “Sustaining life on land.”
4. Goal: By 2030, to combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil (including land affected by desertification, drought, and floods), and achieve a land degradation-neutral world.
5. Overarching Principles of LDN:
   • Avoid: Address drivers of degradation through proactive measures to prevent adverse land changes, supported by appropriate regulations, planning, and management practices.
   • Reduce: Mitigate land degradation on agricultural and forest lands by applying sustainable management practices.
   • Reverse: Restore or rehabilitate productive potential and ecological services of degraded land, assisting in ecosystem recovery.
6. Land Degradation Neutrality Fund (LDN Fund):
   • Launched: At COP 13 to the UNCCD in Ordos, China.
   • Objective: A first-of-its-kind investment vehicle to leverage public money for raising private capital to support sustainable land management and landscape restoration activities globally.

Benefits of Land Degradation Neutrality

1. Competition for Land: As land resources are finite, competition for controlling and utilizing them for goods and services is increasing.
2. Co-Benefits with Climate Change: Effective land degradation management aids in climate change mitigation, adaptation, biodiversity conservation, food security, and sustainable livelihoods.
3. Economic Benefits: As per TERI, the cost of reclaiming degraded land in India is far lower than the economic losses incurred due to land degradation.
4. Paradigm Shift in Policy: LDN represents a transformative approach to land management policies and practices.
5. Positive Effects: Reversing land degradation has the potential to mitigate social and political instability, alleviate poverty, and reduce migration caused by land degradation.
6. Unique approach: It is a unique approach that counter balances the expected loss of productive land with the recovery of degraded areas. 

India’s Need for Efforts

• Paucity of Land: India supports 18% of the global population on only 2.4% of the world’s land mass.
  • Example: Land degradation affects about 30% of all land in India.
• Climate Change: One of the main drivers of land degradation in India. Projections suggest that under a carbon-intensive scenario, India will lose $1,730 billion by 2050 due to climate change.
• High Dependency on Agriculture: Agriculture provides employment for 44% of the workforce. Over 70% of Indians rely on agriculture as a source of income, despite it contributing less than 20% to the economy.
• High Unemployment in Agriculture: Chronic underemployment, especially among migratory and predominantly female labor forces, exacerbates challenges in the sector.
• Increasing Food Demand: India’s food demand is expected to grow at 2–3% annually until 2025, with demand outpacing supply by 2035, even if productivity increases at current rates.

Steps Taken by India

1. Indian Initiatives

• Sustainable Approach: Focus on sustainable land and resource management for livelihood generation, improving land productivity, and ensuring a better future for communities.
• Comprehensive National Plan: The National Action Plan (NAP) to combat desertification was launched in 2001 for a 20-year period.
• Mapping of Degradation: ISRO and other partners prepared the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas (2016) using Indian remote sensing satellite data in GIS environments.
• Sustainable Land and Ecosystem Management (SLEM) Programme: Jointly implemented by the Government of India and Global Environment Facility (GEF) to promote sustainable land and ecosystem management.
• Initiatives Launched: Includes programs like:
  • Integrated Watershed Development Program
  • Per Drop More Crop
  • National Afforestation Program
  • National Green Mission
• Delhi Declaration: India hosted COP 14 to UNCCD and adopted new targets.
  • Target: Increase the area restored from land degradation from 21 million hectares to 26 million hectares by 2030.
  • A Centre of Excellence is being set up at the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, to provide technical assistance.
  • Initial Target: The Union Environment Minister pledged to rejuvenate 50 lakh hectares (5 million hectares) of degraded land between 2021 and 2030.

2. Global Initiatives

• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Established in 1994, it is the sole legally binding international agreement linking environment and development with sustainable land management. India voluntarily agreed to restore 20 million hectares by 2020.
• The Bonn Challenge: Aims to restore 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030.
• Great Green Wall: An initiative by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) where 11 countries in Sahel-Saharan Africa aim to combat land degradation and revive native ecosystems.

Land Reclamation

Land reclamation involves restoring degraded land to its former state by adopting suitable management practices.

Best Practices

1. Banni Region in Rann of Kutch, Gujarat:
   • The region suffers from highly degraded land and very low rainfall.
   • Land restoration is achieved by developing grasslands, helping to achieve land degradation neutrality.
   • Supports pastoral activities and livelihoods by promoting animal husbandry.
   • Suggestion: Devise effective strategies for land restoration while promoting indigenous techniques.
2. Ghana’s Community Land Management Groups:
   • Community land management groups were formed, trained, and empowered as educators in sustainable land management (SLM).
   • Practices included the formulation of participatory land use plans and the establishment of SLM committees.
   • The project restored 30 hectares of degraded woodland, placing it under SLM.
3. Cuba:
   • Following severe droughts from 2014–2017, new crop varieties resistant to extreme weather (e.g., tomato, onion, garlic, chili, banana) were introduced.
   • Sustainable farming practices like planting along contour lines to reduce soil erosion and crop rotation were adopted.
   • Result: 210 hectares of farmland came under sustainable management using climate-smart measures.

Reclamation Methods Adopted by India

1. Adoption of Watershed Approach: Planning at the micro-watershed level using remote sensing and spatial data.
   • Example: Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP).
2. Focus on Water Management: Strategies include aquifer recharge, water budgeting, and crop planning.
   • Example: Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM) Programme, Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Project, and National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA).
3. Integrated Farming-Based Approach: Examples include:
   • National Afforestation Programme (NAP).
   • National Mission for Green India (GIM), focusing on fodder and fuelwood supply, farm forestry, agroforestry, and silvi-pastures.
   • Integrated systems with trees, forage plants, and livestock.
   • Use of stall feeding and improved cooking stoves (chullahs).
4. Focus on Social Aspects: Examples:
   • Constitution of Watershed Committees under Gram Sabha.
   • Development of Water User Associations.
   • Social audits under MGNREGA.
   • Joint Forest Management (JFM) and social fencing by involving local communities.
5. Incorporation of Livelihood-Related Activities: Development of micro-enterprises and involvement of Self-Help Groups (SHGs). Initiatives like Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) to enhance women farmers’ capabilities for sustainability.
6. Adoption of Climate-Related Solutions: Focused on addressing floods, intense precipitation, temperature, and moisture stress.

Way Forward

• Adopt Better Agricultural Practices: Region-specific practices like avoiding tillage on higher slopes and contour plowing to reduce soil erosion.
• Shelterbelts and Stubble Mulching: Planting shelterbelts and using stubble mulching to conserve soil in desert regions.
• Integrated Approach: Integrate land and water management to prevent soil erosion, salinization, and other forms of degradation.

• Adopt Traditional Practices: Apply a combination of traditional practices with locally acceptable and adapted land-use technologies.
• Avoid Overgrazing: Reduce livestock pressure on pastures in hilly, desert, and plateau regions (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Karnataka).
• Capacity Building: Empower local communities to prevent desertification and manage dryland resources effectively.
• Construction of Dams: Reduce the velocity of runoff to enable soil support for vegetation.
• Prevent Ravines: Plug ravines and gullies to prevent headward erosion.
• Creating Economic Opportunities: Focus on dryland urban centers and areas outside drylands for economic development.

DESERTIFICATION

Desertification is the process by which the biological productivity of drylands (arid and semiarid lands) is reduced due to natural or man-made factors. It does not refer to the expansion of existing deserts.

Causes

1. Human-Made Causes

• Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by animals prevents plants from regrowing, damaging the biome and depleting vegetation.
• Deforestation: Removing trees and plants weakens the biome, reducing its ability to thrive.
• Farming Practices: Slash-and-burn agriculture and practices like over-irrigation disturb the soil’s mineral composition, exposing it to erosion hazards.
• Excessive Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides: Initially enhances productivity, but long-term use depletes soil fertility and turns arable land into arid land.
• Over-Drafting of Groundwater: Extracting groundwater beyond the equilibrium yield of aquifers depletes resources, causing desertification.
• Urbanization and Land Development: Urban sprawl reduces the area available for plant growth, leading to desertification.
• Globalization:nWeakens local connections and increases interdependence among nations, emphasizing production for export and straining natural resources.

• Climate Change: Human-induced climate change significantly contributes to desertification. Warmer temperatures and frequent droughts accelerate the process.
• Stripping the Land of Resources: Activities like mining strip the soil of nutrients, killing plant life and initiating desertification over time.
• Soil Pollution: Pollution from various human activities affects soil health, making it unsuitable for plant growth, and may lead to desertification in the long term.
• Overpopulation and Excessive Consumption: The demand for food and materials increases rapidly, leading to excessive farming practices that harm the soil, ultimately causing desertification.
• Mining: Large-scale mining deforests vast areas and pollutes nearby regions, contributing to land degradation and desertification.

2. Natural Causes

• Natural Disasters: Floods, droughts, and landslides displace fertile soil and cause erosion.
• Water Erosion: Leads to badland topography, an early stage of desertification.
• Wind Erosion: Sand encroachment by wind reduces soil fertility, making the land more prone to desertification.

Implications of Desertification

1. Social

• Hunger: Farming-dependent populations suffer food scarcity when agricultural productivity drops due to desertification, leading to hunger issues.
• Overcrowding: People and animals migrate to non-desert areas, causing overcrowding and overpopulation, perpetuating a cycle of desertification.
• Poverty: The lack of food and water makes survival more challenging, leaving people with fewer opportunities for productivity and growth.

2. Environmental

• Flooding: Without plant life, areas become more prone to flooding.
• Poor Water Quality: Desertified areas lack vegetation to filter water, leading to a decline in water quality.
• Biodiversity Loss: Many species cannot adapt to changing environments and face population declines.
• Destruction of Habitats: Desertification destroys habitats, altering conditions for flora and fauna, making survival difficult for many species.

3. Economic

• Farming Becomes Impossible: Growing crops in desertified areas requires advanced technology, which many farmers cannot afford, forcing them to abandon their land.
• Decrease in Crop Yields: Arable land turning arid leads to reduced productivity and crop yields.
• Loss of GDP: A decrease in productive land leads to economic losses at the national level.
• Unemployment: With large populations relying on agriculture, desertification increases unemployment.

4. Political

• Migration and refugee issues: When an area become unsuitable for living. This results in serious migration movements. Even across the border.
• Political unrest: Due to large scale migration there may be political unrest in the areas. 

Prevention Initiatives

1. Government Efforts

• Command Area Development (1974): Aimed at improving irrigation potential and optimizing agricultural production through efficient water management.
• Integrated Watershed Management Programme (1989–90): Restores ecological balance by harnessing, conserving, and developing degraded natural resources while generating rural employment.
• Haryali Guidelines (2003): Now subsumed under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (2015–20), implemented by NITI Aayog.
• Desert Development Programme (1995): Focuses on minimizing the adverse effects of drought and rejuvenating the natural resource base of identified desert areas.
• Soil Conservation in the Catchment of River Valley Projects and Flood-Prone Rivers: Active since 2000, aimed at improving physical soil conditions and restoring alkali soils for optimum crop production.
• National Afforestation Programme (2000): Promotes afforestation of degraded forest lands.
• National Action Programme to Combat Desertification (2001): Addresses desertification issues and proposes appropriate actions.
• Fodder and Feed Development Scheme: Improves degraded grassland and vegetation cover, especially in saline, acidic, and heavy soils.
• National Mission on Green India (2014): Protects, restores, and enhances India’s diminishing forest cover, with a 10-year deadline.
• Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India: Released by ISRO in 2016, focusing on combating desertification and land degradation.

2. Global Efforts

• The Bonn Challenge: Aims to restore 150 million hectares of deforested and degraded land by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030.
• Goal 15 of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), 2030: Promotes protection from degradation through sustainable consumption and production.
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Established in 1994, the only legally binding international agreement linking environmental sustainability with development.
• UNCCD 2018–2030 Strategic Framework: The most comprehensive global commitment to achieve Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN). Restores productivity to degraded land, improving the livelihoods of over 1.3 billion people while reducing drought impacts.
• World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought: Observed every year on June 17th.
• Great Green Wall: An initiative by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to combat land degradation and revive native plant life in 11 Sahel-Saharan African countries.

Way Forward

• Policy Changes: Implement policies regulating farming frequency and extent in certain areas to reduce overutilization.
• Education: In developing countries, education is a critical tool to help people understand sustainable land-use practices.

Solutions to Combat Desertification

• Technology Advances: Research plays a vital role in addressing environmental issues, including desertification. Advancements in technology can provide innovative solutions to mitigate its effects.
• Regulating Mining Practices: Mining often leads to the destruction of large areas of land. Governments should regulate mining activities to protect natural reserves and maintain habitats for plants and animals.
• Rehabilitation Efforts: Rehabilitating lands already affected by desertification requires investment in time and money. Such efforts can prevent further degradation and restore previously damaged areas.
• Reforestation: Areas impacted by deforestation should be prioritized for reforestation to restore ecological balance.
• Sustainable Practices: Implement sustainable practices to prevent desertification, focusing on activities that reduce land degradation. By adopting these measures, we can ensure that the planet does not turn into a desert.

Ending desertification offers the best opportunity to stabilize climate change, conserve wildlife, and safeguard human well-being. Protecting forests and implementing sustainable solutions are shared responsibilities that require collective efforts from people and governments worldwide.