IMPORTANT BIODIVERSITIES

FORESTS

Defined as plant community predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation usually with a closed canopy. Legally defined as area proclaimed to be forest under a forest law.

Benefits

1. Environmental

• Augment biodiversity: Provides much-needed food and shelter to animals.
• Carbon sequestration: They produce oxygen and sequester carbon and act like a carbon sink and reduce GHGs.
• Microclimate: Improves microclimate by lowering temperature around the adjoining areas.
• Soil erosion: Forests prevent soil erosion by binding the soil with the network of roots of the different plants and reduce the velocity of wind and rain — which are the chief agents causing erosion.
• Groundwater recharge: Helps to percolate water, increasing groundwater recharge.
• Nutrient recycling: By tree shedding and humification of broken-down material, leads to the recycling of nutrients.
• Soil structure: Addition of organic matter to soil improves soil structure.
• Protect shoreline: Stabilizes shoreline preventing erosion and shock-absorbing capacity, which protects land from waves, cyclones, and storms.
• Control of Water Flow: In the forests, the thick layer of humus acts like a big sponge and soaks rainwater preventing run-off, thereby preventing flash floods.

2. Social benefit

• Rural living standards: By increasing income through minor forest produce and providing other resources.
• Fuel Wood: Wood is used as a source of energy for cooking purposes and for keeping warm.
• Food and nutrient security: Improves health and nutrient binding by providing diverse, forest produce like fruits and vegetables.
• Rural employment: They provide whole-time daily employment to about 15 lakh persons engaged as wood-cutters, sawyers, carters, and craftsmen and in other related forest industries.
• Support tribal communities: They are also the homes of India’s submerged humanity—the tribals numbering 38 lakhs. They are ecologically and economically a part and parcel of the forest environment.
• Supports livestock: By providing grazing material, providing shelter, and recycling their excreted material, they provide support to livestock.

3. Economic

• Industrial resources: 70% of hardwood is burnt as fuel and only 30% used in industries, while 30% of softwood is used as fuel while 70% is used in industries.
  • Paper Industry: Wood and Bamboo pulp are used for manufacturing paper (Newsprint, stationery, packing paper, sanitary paper).
  • Rayon Industry: Bamboo and wood are used in the manufacture of rayon (yarns, artificial silk-fibers).
• Provide minor forest produce: Tannins, gums, drugs, spices, insecticides, waxes, honey, horns, musk, ivory, hides, etc., are all provided by the flora and fauna of forests.
• Pharmaceutical products: India has 5,000 species of wood, of which about 450 are commercially valuable and are used for extracting acetic acid, acetone, methyl alcohol, certain oils, creosote, and valuable drugs like sulphonamide and chloroform.
• Direct economic benefit: About 3.5 million persons are engaged in different forest activities, and about 2% of total government revenue comes from forests. Foreign exchange is also earned.
• Tourism: High forest cover and good management also help in increasing tourism to these areas.

4. Others

• Recreational services: Better plantation and forest increase the scenic beauty of the land.
• Relieves human stress: They balance the destruction caused by human activities.
• Sacred grooves: Sacred groves are communally protected forests which usually have a significant religious connotation for the protecting community.

Threats

1. Economic Activities

• Mining activities: Illegal and poorly planned mining activities for economic motives without taking proper measures for the protection of the ecosystem.
• Agriculture activities: Clearing of forest by small and local farmers for extending their agricultural area to produce more subsistence crops.
• Construction activities: Constructional and developmental activities such as roads, oil & gas developments, pipelines, etc., through forests.
• Poaching of animals: Animals considered vulnerable, which are prominent members of a food chain, create imbalance in the food web.

2. Social

• Shifting cultivation: Increases soil erosion leading to reduced productivity and destruction of forest from fire.
• Defective forest management: Wrong regeneration practices lead to the loss of traditional forest diversity.
• Overexploitation: Overextraction of natural resources such as timber, medicinal plants, fodder, fruits, etc., results in the depletion of the available resources.
• Forest fires: During 2003–2017, a total of 5,20,861 active forest fire events were detected in India. According to the report of the FSI, over 54% of the forest cover in India is exposed to occasional fire.
• Grazing and browsing: Deforestation and successive conversion into grasslands for animal grazing.
• Land use change: A major cause of forest fragmentation which leads to low productivity of forests.

3. Governance

• Deforestation: Due to the completion of land there is increase population pressure there is widespread deforestation activities are going on.
• Illicit feeling: Due to greed by contractors and corruption in contract allotment. 
• Encroachment: Illegal occupation of forest land by non-tribal communities leads to the wrong use of forest resources. 

4. Environmental

• Climate change: Increasing global warming leads to the reduction of the capacity of forests to survive the desiccation.
• Drought: Leads to conversion into wasteland.
• Floods: Wash away soil and nutrients.
• Wind: Uproots young saplings.
• Hail and snow: Cause physical damage.
• Plant Diseases, Insects, and Pests: Large tracts of forest cover suffer from plant diseases, insects, and pests, which lead to considerable loss of forest wealth.
  • For example: Thousands of hectares of sal forests in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh are being threatened by sal borer for which no remedial measures have been adopted so far.
• Wild animals: They destroy forests due to the fear of encroachment into their areas.

5. Indirect Causes

• Lack of good governance
• Poverty
• Unsustainable consumption and production
• Inequity in ownership and management
• Lack of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for projects

Community Forest Rights

The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006: Recognizes the rights of the forest-dwelling tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers to forest resources. The act identifies four types of rights:

1. Title rights:
   • It gives Forest-Dwelling Scheduled Tribes (FDST) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) the right to ownership of land farmed by tribals or forest dwellers, subject to a maximum of 4 hectares.
   • Ownership is only for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family, and no new lands will be granted.
2. Use rights:
   • The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce, grazing areas, pastoralist routes, etc.
   • Rights of self-cultivation and habitation, which are usually regarded as individual rights.
   • Community rights over common property resources such as grazing, fishing, and access to water bodies in forests.
3. Relief and development rights:
   • Rights to rehabilitation in case of illegal eviction or forced displacement.
   • Rights in and over disputed land.
   • Rights of settlement and conversion of all forest villages, old habitations, un-surveyed villages, and other villages in forests into revenue villages.
   • Rights to the allocation of forest land for developmental purposes.
4. Forest management rights:
   • Includes the right to protect, regenerate, conserve, or manage any community forest resource.
   • Recognition of traditional customary rights.
   • Right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge related to biodiversity and cultural diversity.

Significance of the Forest Rights Act (FRA)

• Restore rights: The Act is crucial to the rights of millions of tribals and other forest dwellers in different parts of our country as it provides for the restitution of deprived forest rights.
• Protect livelihood: The livelihood of perhaps 100 million poorest of the poor stands to improve if the implementation can succeed.
• Integration of conservation and livelihood: The Act provides scope and a historic opportunity for integrating conservation and livelihood rights of the people.
• Protect tribal communities from eviction: In conjunction with the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation, and Settlement Act, 2013, FRA protects the tribal population from eviction.

• This Act will be a potential tool:
  • To empower and strengthen local self-governance.
  • To address the livelihood security of the people, leading to poverty alleviation and pro-poor growth.
  • To address the issues of conservation and management of natural resources and conservation governance of India.

Issues with the Act

1. Frequent violation of the Act: Implementation remains the biggest challenge. Illegal encroachments have happened on a large scale.
2. Not following due process of law: Rejection of claims is particularly high in the states hit by Left-Wing Extremism, where the tribal population is high.
3. Denial of claims and eviction: For example, in Chhattisgarh, where tribals account for a third of the population (compared to the national average of 8.6%), more than half of individual rights claims have been denied.
4. Diluting powers of Gram Sabha: There has been deliberate sabotage by the forest bureaucracy, both at the Centre and the states, and to some extent by big corporations.
5. Concerns of wildlife activists: They claim that this act further encourages encroachment of forests in the name of tribal rights.

Forest (Conservation) Rules, 2022

1. Provisions

• Monitoring: Constitutes an advisory committee, a regional empowered committee, and a screening committee at the State/UT level.
  • Advisory Committee: Advises or recommends on matters related to granting approval under relevant sections for proposals and conservation of forests referred to by the Central government.
  • Project Screening Committee: Conducts initial reviews of proposals involving forest land diversion.
  • Regional Empowered Committees: Examines all linear projects (e.g., roads, highways) involving up to 40 hectares of land and the use of forest land with up to 0.7 canopy density.
• Time frame: Sets a fixed timeline for quicker reviews of each project.
• Responsibility to states: States are given the responsibility of settling forest rights under the Forest Rights Act, 2006, and allowing forest land diversion.
• No consent of Gram Sabha needed: Once a project is approved by the Forest Advisory Committee (FAC), it is forwarded to state authorities to collect compensatory funds and process them for final approval.
• Allows compensatory afforestation (CA) in other states: If a state already has over two-thirds area under green cover or over one-third area under forest cover, CA can be taken in states/UTs where the forest cover is less than 20%.
• Allows private plantations: Provisions allow private parties to cultivate plantations and sell them to companies needing to meet compensatory afforestation targets.

• Defined forest land: Those deemed forests listed by state governments up to 1996. Land that belonged to Railways or other ministries and on which forest has come up will no longer be considered forests.
• No approval is needed for Strategic Projects: In strategic and security projects of national importance.
• Allows building in Forests: Right to construct structures for bonafide purposes, including forest protection measures and residential units (up to an area of 250 sq. meters as a one-time relaxation).

2. Significance

• Consolidation and better clarity: The latest version of the rules consolidates changes to the Act over the years from various amendments and judicial rulings. This will provide better clarity to implementing agencies and the general public, thereby preventing unnecessary diversion.
• Streamline the approval process: It will allow parallel processing of proposals and eliminate redundant processes. This ensures speedier execution and prevents delays in project implementation, avoiding cost overruns and withdrawal of proposals.
• Better provision for compensatory afforestation: It helps India increase forest cover and addresses the issue of states struggling to find land within their jurisdiction for compensatory purposes.

3. Concerns

• Diluting FRA, 2006: Allowed forest land to be diverted to industry without settling questions about the rights of forest dwellers and tribals residing on those lands.
  • For example: There is a lack of clarity regarding what happens to tribals and forest-dwelling communities whose land would be taken away for developmental work. Further, the new rules imply that it is not mandatory to take the consent of Gram Sabha before forest diversion.
• Issue of forced consent: The new rules allow the Union Government to permit the clearing of a forest before consulting its inhabitants. This is akin to forced consent, where inhabitants have no choice but to accept. Once forest clearance is granted, no claims will be recognized or settled.
• Bad tradeoff: The rules are criticized as a tool to promote ease of doing business for a chosen few but will end the ‘ease of living’ for many forest dwellers.
• No consultation with stakeholders: The new rules were introduced without any consultation or discussion with stakeholders, including the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology, Environment, Forests and Climate Change, environmental conservation groups, or tribal community representatives who will be affected.

Government Initiatives

1. Policy and Schemes

• National Afforestation Programme (NAP) scheme: Focuses on the ecological restoration of degraded forests and the development of forest resources through people’s participation, with an emphasis on improving the livelihoods of forest-fringe communities, especially the poor.
• National Mission for a Green India: Aims to improve forest quality and increase forest cover through cross-sectoral activities on a landscape basis.
• Government plans ‘Green Wall’ of India: This initiative aims to address the rising rates of land degradation and the eastward expansion of the Thar Desert.
• National Forestry Policy, 1988: Emphasize joint forest management between villages and the relevant forest department to:
  • Meet the basic needs of rural and tribal populations.
  • Increase forest productivity.
  • Improve the efficiency of forest product utilization.
  • Minimize pressure on existing forests.
• National Forest Policy 2019 (draft)
  • It aims at bringing a minimum of one-third of India’s total geographical area under forest or tree cover.
  • Conservation, protection and management of forest.
  • Safeguard interest of tribal and forest department people 

2. Legal Framework

• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Defines boundaries, authorities to be appointed, and prevention and detection of offenses.
• Forest Conservation Act, 1980: Provides guidelines, rules, and penalties for conservation of forests.
• CAMPA Act: Established to compensate for the loss of forest area and maintain sustainability. In 2006, ad-hoc CAMPA was introduced for the management of the Compensatory Afforestation Fund.

Way Forward

• Afforestation: Launch intensive programs focusing on fuelwood, timber, grasses, etc., including tree plantations along roads, railway lines, rivers, banks, and around lakes and ponds.
• Development of green-belts: Establish plantations in urban areas and community lands, including Gram Sabha lands.
• Encroachment of agriculture in forests should be made punishable: Gradually replace shifting cultivation with terraced farming, orchard development, and silviculture.
• Alternative sources for rural population: Provide alternative sources of fuel to rural populations.
• Protect carrying capacity: Limit customary rights and concessions given to tribals and locals to prevent exceeding the land’s carrying capacity.
• Responsible mining: Include a mandatory reforestation clause in mining activities after completion.
• Scientific management of forests: Use scientific methods to address forest fire diseases and pests.
• Research on forestry: Encourage research in universities with adequate funding.
• Industrial awareness: Industries should adopt anti-pollution measures and compensate for forest loss through new plantations.
• Awareness: Change the public’s mindset and spread awareness about conservation efforts.
• People participation: Encourage public participation in initiatives like Van Mahotsava and promote awareness of the Chipko movement.
• India State of Forest Report 2021: Issues that need to be addressed:
  • Definition of Forest: The Forest Survey of India’s (FSI) definition includes all tree patches with a canopy density of more than 10% and larger than one hectare, irrespective of legal status, leading to discrepancies.
  • Unverified Data: The forest cover data used by FSI is not publicly available, raising questions about its accuracy.
  • Decline in North East Forests: There has been a noticeable decline in forest cover in ecologically diverse regions of Northeast India.
  • Not Substantive: The report focuses more on forest cover metrics than on ecological changes in forest species and communities.

“India is a land where people revered forest species and gave their lives to save them, as seen in the Chipko movement. We must collaboratively work to protect the precious gift of the environment from being destroyed by petty human greed.”

MANGROVES

Mangroves are a diverse group of salt-tolerant plant communities found in tropical and sub-tropical intertidal regions of the world receiving rainfall between 10,000 to 30,000 mm and temperatures ranging from 26-35°C. Mangroves are commonly found throughout the world between latitudes 24° N and 38° S.

Importance

1. Environmental
   • Rich in biodiversity: Mangrove forests are home to a large variety of fish, crabs, shrimp, and mollusk species.
   • Provide unique environment for niche development: Mangroves are structurally complex, creating unique habitats that support a wide variety of organisms.
   • Nutrient cycle: Mangroves enhance the natural recycling of nutrients.
   • Carbon sequestration: Absorb up to 5 times more carbon than other forests.

1. Economic
   • Food supply: Fisheries in mangroves provide an essential food source for thousands of coastal communities worldwide.
   • Timber: Mangrove wood is resistant to rot and insects, making it valuable for construction materials and fuel.
   • Livelihood: Mangroves provide employment opportunities to local communities and enhance their livelihoods.
   • Metal extraction: Mangroves filter out heavy metals from the mud, depositing them as rich sediments.
   • Sustainable development: Intact mangrove forests support ecotourism, sport fishing, and other recreational activities.
   • Medicinal benefits: Coastal communities collect medicinal plants from mangroves and use mangrove leaves as animal fodder.
2. Geographic
   • Protect coastal ecology: Mangroves act as water filters, purifying river and floodplain water flowing into the ocean, protecting coastal ecosystems like coral reefs.
   • Prevent soil erosion: Mangroves reduce high tides and waves, preventing soil erosion.
   • Act as shock absorbers: They minimize disasters caused by cyclones and tsunamis by reducing high tides and protecting shorelines from erosion.
     • For example: The mangroves on the eastern coast helped mitigate the impact of the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami.

Threats

1. Anthropogenic

• Clearing: Clearing for tourist developments, shrimp aquaculture, and salt farms has taken place.
• Overharvesting: Mangrove trees are used for firewood, construction wood, wood chips and pulp production, charcoal production, and animal fodder. In some parts, this is sustainable.
• Agriculture: Thousands of acres of mangrove forests have been destroyed to make way for rice paddies, rubber trees, palm oil plantations, and other forms of agriculture.
  • For example: 40% of mangroves on the west coast have been converted into farmlands and other settlements in just three decades.
• River flow changes: Dams and irrigation reduce the amount of water reaching mangrove forests, changing the salinity level of water in the forest.
• Overfishing: The ecological balance of food chains and mangrove fish communities can also be altered.
• Destruction of coral reefs: When coral reefs are destroyed, stronger-than-normal waves and currents reaching the coast can undermine the fine sediment in which the mangroves grow.
• Shrimp Farming: The most significant threat to the world’s mangrove forests is the rapid expansion of shrimp aquaculture.
  • For example: Due to shrimp farming, about 35,000 hectares of mangroves have been lost in India.
• Pollution: Mangroves face severe threats from fertilizers, pesticides, and the discharge of domestic sewage and industrial effluents carried down by river systems.
• Salt farming: Saltpans and aquaculture also pose a major threat to the mangroves.
• Human expansion: Fragmentation of mangrove forests is another consequence of unplanned expansions. Fragmentation affects the dispersal and movement of species.

• For example: 40% of mangrove forests on the West Coast of India have been converted into farmlands and housing colonies over the last three decades.

2. Natural

• Climate change: Mangrove forests are extremely sensitive to rising sea levels caused by global warming and climate change.
• Sea level rise and coastal erosion: Global warming causes sea levels to continuously rise, flooding large areas of mangrove forests and resulting in their depletion.
• Invasion by alien species: Introduction of non-native plants and animals threatens endemic species, leading to ecological imbalance and depletion.
• Extreme events: Cyclones, typhoons, and strong waves uproot mangroves.
• Overgrazing: Trampling and overgrazing by wildlife and livestock near mangrove regions.
• Damage by native species: Damage caused by crabs, oysters, and pests to young seedlings of mangroves.

Best Practices

• Mozambique: Protecting mangrove forests for healthy and prosperous communities through innovation, capacity building, and sustainable technologies.

Mumbai Case Study

1. Massive destruction:
   • 40% of mangroves on the west coast have been converted into farmlands and settlements in just three decades.
   • Mangroves on the Maharashtra coast stretched over 200 km in the 1970s. By 2001, this was reduced to 118 km.
2. Destruction due to bullet train project:
   • The upcoming bullet train project requires cutting down 13.36 hectares of mangroves in the Thane Creek. Nearly 30,000 trees will be cut for the project.
   • The Maharashtra government announced that five times the number of trees cut would be replanted as part of restoration efforts.
3. Mumbai High Court decision:
   • In 2005, the Mumbai High Court classified mangroves as forests.
   • In 2018, the High Court declared the destruction of mangroves an offense against citizens’ fundamental rights under Article 21 of the Constitution.
4. Government effort:
   • In 2016, the Maharashtra government declared over 15,000 hectares of mangroves as reserve forests.
   • Construction within 50 meters of these mangroves is illegal.
5. State of Indian Forest Cover Report 2019:
   • The mangrove forest cover in Maharashtra has increased by 72% in the last six years.
   • This is an increase of 134 square kilometers.

Government and Global Initiatives

1. Indian Initiatives

• Scientific management: The Sundarbans became the first mangrove forest in the world to be placed under scientific management in 1892.
• Bio-restoration program: In 2013, the Biotechnology Department initiated a bio-restoration program in Sundarbans, stabilizing degraded mangrove stretches with native grasses (salt-tolerant varieties). An on-site nursery was also set up.
• National Mangrove Genetic Resources Centre: Established in Orissa by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, providing free access for research on genetic resources at one location.
• BOBLME project: In 2018, India joined seven other Bay of Bengal region countries to protect mangroves under the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) initiative. The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) leads this project. The GEF (Global Environment Facility) approved a grant of $15 million USD for this project.
• Several legislations and notifications: These are sources of protection (though mangroves are not specifically mentioned in all).
  

• Indian Forest Act, 1927
• The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
• Forest Conservation Act, 1980
• The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification
• The Environment Impact Assessment Notification, 1994
  

2. Global Initiative

• Mangroves for Future is an Indian initiative: Coordinated by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), covering eight countries (including India) in the Indian Ocean.
  • Objectives:
    • To strengthen the environmental sustainability of coastal development.
    • To promote investment of funds and efforts in coastal ecosystem management for sustainable development.

Way Forward

• Environmental monitoring: Systematically and periodically monitor existing mangrove areas.
• Preventing destruction: Avoid degradation of mangrove ecosystems through measures against pollution, siltation, salinity changes, and biodiversity loss.
• Sustainable aquaculture: Adopt sustainable aquaculture practices to address threats to mangroves.
• Nursery development: Establish mangrove nursery banks for propagation.
• Proactive steps for pollution: Mitigate upstream pollution effects on mangroves through proactive measures.
• Local participation: Ensure local community involvement in conservation and management.
• Floristic survey: Conduct floristic surveys along the coast to prepare a biodiversity atlas for mangroves.
• Persuasion and monitoring: Encourage coastal industries and private owners to participate in mangrove biodiversity conservation.
• Capacity building: Train forest department officials on taxonomy, biology, and ecology of mangrove species.
• Awareness: Raise awareness about mangroves through films, exhibitions, posters, seminars, and nature camps.

CORAL REEF

The Coral Reefs are defined as a ridge or mound of limestone, with its upper surface near the sea surface, formed from calcium carbonate by the actions of organisms, chiefly corals.

• Corals: Marine invertebrates without a spine. They form the largest living structures on the planet. Each coral is a polyp, with thousands living together in colonies, which grow as polyps multiply.

Formation of Coral Reefs

1. Larva settlement: Coral reef formation begins when free-swimming coral larvae attach to submerged rocks or other hard surfaces along island and continental edges.
2. Growth stage: As corals grow and expand, they form fringing reefs, barrier reefs, or atolls.
3. Ideal conditions for coral growth:
   • Stable climatic conditions with ample sunlight.
   • Perpetually warm waters (around 20°C; ideal range 23°C to 25°C).
   • Shallow water (45–55 meters below sea surface).
   • Clear saltwater (salinity 27% to 40%).
   • Abundant plankton for nutrient supply.
   • No pollution, as corals are highly sensitive to pollution and sedimentation.

Importance of Coral Reefs

1. Environmental

• Maintain coastal quality: Coral reefs support a diverse range of species and help maintain coastal biospheres.
• Carbon sequestration: Corals regulate carbon dioxide levels in water by converting it into limestone shells.
• Habitation: Provide essential habitats and shelter for marine organisms, serving as sources of nitrogen and other nutrients.
  • For example: About 25% of ocean fish depend on healthy coral reefs.
• Nutrient recycling: Corals recycle nutrients essential for marine food chains and carbon/nitrogen fixation.
• Climate change record: Corals offer an accurate long-term record of climate change, contributing to knowledge about seasonal climate variability.
• Clean nearby waters: Coral reefs and sponges filter particulate matter from water, enhancing the quality and clarity of near-shore waters.

2. Economic

• Medicinal value: Coral reef organisms are being studied for potential treatments for cancer, arthritis, bacterial infections, and viruses.
• Fishing industry: Coral reefs are crucial for fish spawning and juvenile fish development before they migrate to open waters.
  • For example: The Great Barrier Reef generates over $1.5 billion annually for the Australian economy from fishing and tourism.
• Tourism: The Great Barrier Reef generated $4.6 billion annually pre-COVID, employing over 60,000 people, including divers and guides.
• Livelihood: Local economies derive billions of dollars annually from reef visitors through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems.
  • For example: A study estimated the value of coral reefs at $10 billion and direct economic benefits of $360 million per year.

3. Geographic

• Protect Coastal Areas: Coral reefs protect coastlines from the damaging effects of wave action and tropical storms.
  • For example: During the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004, some coastlines were protected from severe damage due to healthy coral reefs.
• Monsoon forecasting: According to the Indian Institute of Meteorology, coral reefs can provide insights into the monsoon system.

Location

1. Coral Reefs in India:
   • Gulf of Kutch: Fringing reefs
   • Lakshadweep: Coral atolls
   • Gulf of Mannar: Fringing reefs
   • Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Fringing reefs
2. Coral Triangle:
   • A triangular area of tropical marine waters covering Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor.

Threat Factors

1. Environmental

• Ocean acidification: A change in ocean water pH triggers coral bleaching.
• Extreme climatic conditions: Climatic extremes make corals more hostile, increasing bleaching risks.
• Solar radiation and ultraviolet radiation: Reduced cloud cover and increased radiation induce coral bleaching.
• Water pollution and surface runoff: Decreased water clarity restricts coral formation.
• Rise in temperature: Elevated water temperatures decline coral health, as they cannot survive in extreme heat.

2. Geographical

• Subaerial Exposure: Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere due to extreme low tides, ENSO-related sea level drops, or tectonic uplift can cause bleaching.
• Fresh Water Dilution: Storm-generated precipitation and runoff rapidly dilute reef waters, causing coral bleaching.
• Infectious Diseases: Bacteria like Vibrio shiloi inhibit photosynthesis of zooxanthellae, becoming more potent with elevated sea temperatures.

3. Anthropogenic

• Coastal development: Coastal infrastructure and tourist resorts near coral reefs cause significant damage.
• Sedimentation: Construction along coasts and islands increases soil erosion, depositing sediments into rivers, which smother corals and deprive them of light.

• Pollution: Toxic pollutants dumped directly into the ocean poison coral reefs by increasing the nitrogen level of seawater, leading to algae overgrowth.
• Overfishing: Causes ecological imbalances in coral reef ecosystems.
• Blast fishing: Use of explosives indiscriminately destroys coral reefs.
• Bottom trawling: Damages corals at the bottom and margins of continents and islands.
• Recreational activities: Physical damage from careless swimmers, divers, and poorly placed boat anchors.
• Plastic pollution: Eight million tons of plastic rubbish enter the oceans annually. Discarded plastic breaks down into microplastics, which are mistaken for food by coral polyps and ingested.

Examples

1. The Great Barrier Reef: According to the 2014 report by the Government of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, climate change poses the most significant environmental threat to the reef.
2. The Lakshadweep Islands: Bombay Natural History Society and Wildlife Institute of India (WII) recorded recurring bleaching and dying of coral reefs in these islands.

Government and Global Initiatives

1. Government Initiatives

• Legislation and Regulations:
  • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
  • Environmental Protection Act, 1986.
  • Corals included in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
• Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM): Focuses on integrating management of coastal and marine areas, with model plans for the Gulf of Kutch.
• Coastal Regulation Zone Notification and Island Protection Zone Notification: Regulates developmental activities along the coast to protect coral ecosystems.
• National Coastal Zone Management Authority (NCZMA) and State Coastal Zone Management Authorities: Established mechanisms for the protection of coastal and marine areas.
• Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF): Conducts studies on coral reefs under Coastal Zone Studies (CZS).
• Coral Bleaching Alert System (Initiated by INCOIS): Uses satellite-derived Sea Surface Temperature (SST) to assess thermal stress in coral environments.
• National Coral Reef Research Centre: Established in Port Blair, with a database network and website on coral reefs.

2. Global Initiatives

• International Coral Reefs Initiative (ICRI): Informal partnership among nations and organizations to preserve coral reefs and ecosystems worldwide.
• Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network: Provides scientific information on the status of coral reefs to improve conservation and management.
• International Coral Reef Action Network: Strategic alliance of public and private organizations addressing global reef ecosystem management and the needs of dependent communities.
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Includes coral reef conservation and restoration as part of ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) for coastal protection.
• Global warming measures: Adoption of UNFCCC and IPCC protocols.
• CITES: Protects corals by managing trade activities.

Best Practices

• Project REGENERATE: Maldivian coral reefs have shown resilience, with coral recovery being among the best recorded in the Indian Ocean.
• A Mumbai-Based NGO Initiative: Reef Watch India, launched two projects — Re(ef)Build and Re(ef)Grow — to conserve coral reefs.

Measures to be Taken (Mitigating Measures)

1. Environment

• Regeneration of lost biodiversity.
• Preservation and regeneration of important food sources for dependent villages.
• Reservation of marine ecosystems and protection of endemic and endangered species.
• Reducing greenhouse gases and adhering to the Paris Agreement.
• Monitoring and halting polluted water disposal into the sea.
• Banning bottom trawling and blast fishing.

2. Social

• Empowering sustainable environmental management by communities.
• Promoting social cohesion and food sovereignty.

3. Economic

• Creating a sustainable environment for fishing.
• Increasing and diversifying income opportunities.
• Complementary activities (e.g., coral regeneration) enable sustainable fisheries in villages.
• Developing eco-tourism to raise awareness about marine conservation among tourists.

4. Methods of Coral Restoration

• Biorock Technology: A method to restore coral reefs using bio-rock or mineral accretion.
• Biological Restoration: Uses various methods to grow and transplant corals for reef restoration, including:
  • Asexual propagation: Transplanting coral fragments or colonies from a donor site to degraded reefs.
  • Coral Gardening: Collecting, growing, and reattaching coral fragments at degraded sites.
• Structural Restoration: Involves constructing artificial reefs, sinking wrecks, or relocating rocks or dead coral heads.
• Physical Restoration: Improves coral growth conditions to enhance health, growth rates, and reproductive ability.

Way Forward

• Awareness: Educate the public, policymakers, and stakeholders on the ecological and socio-economic value of coral reefs.
• Climate Action: Address climate change by adhering to the Paris Agreement’s goal of limiting global temperature rise to 1.5°C.
• Coral Restoration Programs: Play a key role in reef conservation.
  • For example: The Force Blue project trains retired Special Forces soldiers to transplant endangered coral species.
• Marine Parks: Establish marine parks with legislative support (e.g., Marine National Park at Krusadi Island, Gulf of Mannar).
• Satellite Oceanography: Use cost-effective satellite technologies for mapping and monitoring coral reefs.
• Scientific Knowledge: Enhance scientific research to create effective responses to coral reef threats.
• Fishing Regulation: Control fishing in nearby areas and prevent heavy fishing in coral reef zones.
• Invasive Species: Monitor and address coral destruction caused by invasive species like starfish in regions such as the Great Barrier Reef and Tropical West Pacific.

Coral reefs are an important part of the ecosystem. It has not only ecological significance but also is an important indicator of environmental health. Recent rise in coral bleaching has raised various concerns and efforts have been made to restore the same. However, despite such efforts, a dedicated coral protection program is lacking in India and this is affecting the coral protection programs conducted by concerned state governments.  

WETLANDS

Wetlands are “areas of marsh, fen, peatland, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salt, including areas of marine water where the depth at low tide does not exceed 6 meters.”

Threats

1. Economic Pressures

• Dredging and sand mining: Removes material from wetlands or riverbeds, lowering the surrounding water table and drying adjacent wetlands.
• Tourism: Wetlands are drained for tourist facilities like hotels or camping sites.
• Over-exploitation of natural resources: Leads to depletion, leaving no resources for recreational use.

2. Agricultural Pressure

• Construction of dams: Large reservoirs, canals, and dams for irrigation have significantly altered the hydrology of wetlands.
• Diversion of water for agriculture: Over-extraction for agriculture disrupts ecological flow, converting wetlands into dry land.
• Increased salinity: Over-extraction of groundwater near wetlands leads to capillary action and increased salinity.
• Introduction of wild species: Exotic plant species like water hyacinth and salvinia clog waterways, competing with native vegetation.

3. Urbanization Pressure

• Encroachment: Increased population pressure and lack of land lead to encroachment on wetlands.
• Construction: Wetlands near urban centers face developmental pressures for residential, industrial, and commercial facilities.
• Increased demand for water supply: Urban centers rely on wetlands for public water supplies.

4. Climate Change Pressure

• Global warming: Increases air temperature, shifts precipitation patterns, and raises sea levels, impacting wetlands.
• Frequent storms and floods: Increased frequency worsens wetland degradation.
• For example: Wetlands are disappearing 3 times faster than forests due to human activities and global warming. 

5. Pollution Pressure

• Agricultural runoff: Leads to eutrophication.
• Untreated industrial effluents: Wetlands can clean fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural runoff but cannot remove mercury from industrial sources.
• Dumping of municipal solid waste: Provides nutrients that accelerate the aging process.

Benefits

1. Environmental

• Protect fish: Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems that provide nearly two-thirds of the world’s fish harvest.
• Provide food for species: Nutrient-rich wetlands are ideal for developing organisms at the base of the food web, feeding numerous species.
• Carbon sequestration: Wetlands store carbon within plant communities and soil instead of releasing it into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
  • For example: 30% of land-based carbon is stored in peatlands.
• Groundwater recharge: Surrounding areas of wetlands experience higher groundwater levels.
• Habitat for various organisms:
  • Wetlands host animals and plants, supporting biodiversity found nowhere else.
  • For example: UNESCO states that threats to wetlands could adversely affect 40% of the world’s flora and fauna.
• Bird conservation: Wetlands are habitats for aquatic flora, native species, and migratory birds.
• Reservoir of water: Wetlands retain large volumes of water globally.
• Regulate microclimate: Wetlands help regulate local climate conditions, particularly temperature and precipitation.

2. Pollution Abatement

• Water purification: Wetlands improve water quality by removing inorganic nutrients, processing organic wastes, and reducing suspended nutrients.
• Phosphate and nitrate assimilation: Wetlands filter phosphates and nitrates from runoff through vegetation and anaerobic bacterial action.
• Environmental problem management: Wetlands address algal blooms, dead zones, and fish kills caused by nutrient overloading.
• Constructed wetlands: Used to treat municipal wastewater.
• Nutrient removal: Perform bioremediation functions.

3. Disaster Protection

• Flood control: Wetlands act as sponges, absorbing excess water flow.
• Shoreline protection: Located at the margins of lakes, rivers, and oceans, wetlands protect shorelines and stream banks from erosion.

4. Economic

• Fishing: Over 660 million people depend on fishing and aquaculture for their livelihoods, as many commercial fish species breed in coastal marshes and estuaries.
• Source of livelihood for local people:
  • Wetlands provide resources with commercial value that satisfy daily needs.
  • For example: Over one billion people rely on wetlands for their living.
• Transport facilities: Rivers and inland waterways are vital for transporting goods and people.
• Tourism: Many wetlands are natural attractions and boost tourism.
  • For example: Nearly seven million tourists visit Kerala’s backwaters annually.
• Rice cultivation: Coastal communities use wetlands for cultivating rice.
• Other crops cultivation: Wetlands produce crops like blueberries and mints.
• Source of timber: Wetlands are a timber source in many regions.
• Medicinal plants: Wetlands support many plant species that have medicinal value.

5. Others 

• Spiritual: Many aboriginal people revere wetlands for their cultural and spiritual well-being.
• Research: Wetlands act as grounds for research and recreation. People who enjoy birdwatching or wildlife photography visit these habitats to observe various species.
• Sediment trapping: Wetlands reduce runoff velocity, and wetland vegetation effectively traps and retains sediment.

Case Studies

1. Failure

• Bihar’s shrinking wetlands: Kanwar Lake in Begusarai, Bihar, Asia’s largest oxbow lake, has significantly shrunk since 2000. A study by Bihar State PCB found that the permanently waterlogged area covers a mere 2.80% of the total net area sown.
• East Calcutta Wetlands: Bhagabanpur Mouza, which was 88% water body in 2002, reduced to 80% land by 2016, as reported by the Society for Creative Opportunities and Participatory Ecosystems. Settlement areas for habitation increased from 0.18% in 2002 to 13.2% in 2016.

2. Success

• Deepor Beel (Assam): The Assam government declared a 10 km area around Deepor Beel as a protected buffer zone, restricting industrial and human activities.
• Hokersar Wetland (Srinagar): In 2019, the Srinagar administration initiated a peripheral demarcation process to map encroachments. Included geo-tagging for easier location-specific access to wetland information.

3. Best Practice

• Mutlupur in Muzaffarpur district, Bihar: Farmers turned wetlands into productive areas and a source of livelihood. They consulted veterinary, agricultural, fishery, and horticultural experts to implement integrated farming technologies.

Measures Taken

1. Policy Initiatives

• Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017: Prohibits conversion of wetlands for non-wetland uses. Restricts industrial expansion and construction waste disposal in wetland areas.
• National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA): Conserves aquatic ecosystems through sustainable conservation plans and uniform policies.
  • Objectives:
    • To conserve and restore lakes and wetlands.
    • Achieve desired water quality enhancement.
    • Improve biodiversity and ecosystems.
    • Reduce pollution load.
    • Enable sustainable use of wetland resources.
• National Wetland Conservation Program: Coordinated by MoEFCC to provide financial and technical assistance to state governments for wetland management and implementation of the program.
• Wetland Health Cards (2019): 130 wetlands identified for restoration over five years. Each wetland receives a health card denoting its condition.
• Wetland Mitras: Selected individuals tasked with caretaking 130 identified wetlands across India.

2. Legal Framework

• Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
• Environmental (Protection) Act 1986
• Biodiversity Act 2002
• Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006

Global Initiatives

Ramsar Convention on Wetland: An intergovernmental treaty signed in 1971, providing the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

• Major Obligations:
  • Designate wetlands for inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International Importance.
  • Promote the wise use of wetlands within their territory.
  • Enhance international cooperation for transboundary wetlands, shared water systems, and species.
  • Create wetland reserves.

Way Forward

1. Government Roles

• Increased coordination and cooperation: Streamline efforts among government authorities.
• Recognition of wetlands: Include wetlands as a distinct land-use category to prevent encroachment.
• Monitoring wetlands degradation: Focus on critical wetlands to address degradation effectively.
• Specific Act: A dedicated legal framework is needed to protect wetlands.

2. Others

• Increasing people’s participation: As observed in the Bihar case, incorporate cultural approaches for wetland conservation.
• Awareness generation: Prevent misuse of wetlands through community education.
• Research and training on wetland conservation: Promote technological interventions to restore wetlands and utilize them sustainably.
• Creating buffer zones around wetlands: Limit human activities in nearby areas to protect wetlands.
• Reduce carbon footprint: Minimize pressure on wetlands for carbon sequestration.