Air Pollution

Air Pollution: Causes and Air Pollutants

Environmental Issues and Environmental Degradation 

Environmental degradation makes the environment unfit or less suitable for the survival of different life forms, thereby causing immense ecological damage. Population explosion, urbanisation and the associated increase in human needs and comforts have resulted in rapid industrialisation. Rapid industrialisation, in turn, has led to the overexploitation of natural resources. The consequences of such exploitation are evident in major environmental issues such as climate change, ocean acidification, soil erosion, desertification, loss of biodiversity, pollution, etc.

Pollution : 

Pollution may be defined as the addition/release of undesirable physical, chemical or biological agents (substances/pollutants) into the environment due to human (anthropogenic) activities. The agents which cause pollution are called pollutants. They are directly or indirectly harmful to humans and other living organisms. Pollution may be of the following types: Air pollution, Noise pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution, Thermal pollution, Radiation pollution, etc.

Air Pollution

Air pollution may be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substances, including noise and radioactive radiation, in the atmosphere in such concentration that may be directly and/or indirectly injurious to humans or other living organisms, property or interferes with the normal environmental processes. The ever-increasing use of fossil fuels in power plants, industries, transportation, mining, construction of buildings, and stone quarries has led to air pollution.

Fossil fuels contain small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. Burning fossil fuels like coal (thermal power plants) and petroleum release different oxides of nitrogen (nitrogen oxides) and sulphur into the atmosphere. These gases react with the water vapour present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The acids drop down with rain, making the rain acidic. This is called acid rain.

Acid rain corrodes the marble monuments like the Taj Mahal. This phenomenon is called Marble cancer. 

Other kinds of pollutants are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used in refrigerators and air conditioners and as pressurising agents in aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the ozone layer of the atmosphere.

The combustion of fossil fuels also increases the number of suspended particles in the air. These suspended particles could be unburnt carbon particles or substances called hydrocarbons. The presence of high levels of all these pollutants causes visibility to be lowered, especially in cold weather when water also condenses out of the air. This is known as smog and is an indication of air pollution.

World Health Organization (WHO) Report: According to the WHO, air pollution is responsible for 7 million premature deaths annually, with outdoor air pollution being the cause of 4.2 million of these deaths.

Air Quality Index (AQI): The AQI is a tool used globally to measure air quality. It categorises air quality from “Good” to “Hazardous” based on the concentration of pollutants like PM2.5, PM10, ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO).

Indian Scenario: According to the 2023 IQAir World Air Quality Report, India is home to 39 of the 50 most polluted cities globally, with Delhi consistently ranking among the top.

Major Causes of Air Pollution 

• Vehicular and Industrial Emissions : 

Carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of Nitrogen (NOX), and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs — benzene, ethanol, formaldehyde, cyclohexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane or acetone) are the major pollutants (>80%) from vehicular emissions.

Other trace emissions include methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of sulphur (SOx), and total suspended particles (TSPs). 

Critical industries such as iron and steel, sugar, paper, cement, fertiliser, copper, and aluminium contribute to suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOX, NOX, and CO2.

• Improper Use of Pyrolysis : 

Pyrolysis is a technique of breaking down synthetic material at high temperatures (300-400°C) for an hour without oxygen. While pyrolysis is a safer technique than burning, pyrolysis leaves fine carbon matter, pyro gas and oil as residue. Many tyre pyrolysis and other industrial pyrolysis units employ sub-optimum pyrolysis technologies.

Applications of Pyrolysis

• Used in the chemical industry to produce methanol, activated carbon, charcoal, etc., from wood.
• Synthetic gas from pyrolysis can be used in gas turbines to produce electricity.
• Mixtures of soil, stone, ceramics, and glass obtained from pyrolytic waste can be used in building materials.
• Pyrolysis was recently proposed for converting billions of disposable COVID-19 PPE kits into biocrude synthetic fuel (biofuel). 

Advantages of Pyrolysis 

•  Inexpensive for processing a wide variety of feedstocks.
•  Reduces waste going to landfill and GHG emissions.
•  Reduces the risk of water pollution.

The National Green Tribunal, in 2014, prohibited used tyres from being burnt in the open or used as fuel in brick kilns

• Fuel adulteration : 

The taxes on diesel and gasoline are high compared to that on kerosene, which is meant as a cooking fuel. Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with lower-priced kerosene is hence rampant in India. Adulterated fuel increases emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter.

• Emissions from Agriculture, Waste Treatment and Biomass Burning : 

1. Ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O – GHG) are the critical pollutants from agricultural activities. 
2. Methane (CH4) is the major pollutant released from landfills and wastewater treatment plants. 
3. Ammonia (NH3) is a by-product released from the composting process.

 

• Stubble Burning : 

Stubble burning is intentionally setting fire to the straw stubble that remains after grains, like paddy and wheat, have been harvested. It is practised in all parts of India. 

Stubble burning in Punjab, Haryana, and UP to clear the fields for the sowing of Rabi Crop from the last week of September to November is causing severe pollution in the NCR region in winter. There is only a two to three weeks window between the harvesting of paddy crops and the sowing of the next crop. Hence the pollution levels quickly rise, leaving the NCR region gasping for breath.

Burning crop residue is a crime under IPC and the Air and Pollution Control Act of 1981. The National Green Tribunal (NGT) banned crop residue burning in Rajasthan, UP, Haryana, and Punjab, but the practice is still rampant.

Effects of Stubble Burning : 

Pollution: Stubble burning emits large amounts of toxic pollutants into the atmosphere, which contain harmful gases like methane (CH4), Carbon Monoxide (CO), and Volatile Organic compounds (VOC). These pollutants adversely affect health by creating a thick blanket of smog. 

Loss of Soil Fertility: Burning crop residues on the fields destroy the nutrients and useful bacteria and fungi in the soil, making it less fertile.

Loss of Soil Moisture: The heat generated by stubble burning penetrates the soil and leads to the loss of moisture.

• Household Air Pollution (Indoor Air Pollution) : 

Household air pollution results from the burning of various fuels (coal, charcoal, wood, agricultural residue, animal dung, and kerosene, among others) for heating or for cooking with limited ventilation. This produces an array of pollutants, including fine particulate matter (PM2.5), black carbon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane. On the other hand, paints, carpets, furniture, etc., in rooms may give out volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

• Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction : 

The volcanic gases that pose the most significant hazard to people, animals and property are sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen sulphide. Locally, sulphur dioxide can lead to acid rain and air pollution downwind from a volcano. Globally, significant

explosive eruptions inject a tremendous volume of sulphur aerosols into the stratosphere, leading to lower surface temperatures & promoting the depletion of the ozone layer. 

Classification of Air Pollutants :

• Based on Physical State : 
• Particulate Matter (PM) : Solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, including dust, smoke, soot, and aerosols. PM is further classified into PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or smaller) and PM10 (particles with a diameter of 10 micrometres or smaller). 
• Gaseous Pollutants: Pollutants in gaseous form, such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and ozone (O3). 
• Based on Origin : 
• Primary Pollutants: Emitted directly from a source, such as CO from vehicles, SO2 from power plants, and VOCs from industrial processes. 
• Secondary Pollutants: Formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions involving primary pollutants. Examples include ground-level ozone (O3), which forms when NOx and VOCs react in the presence of sunlight, and smog, which is a mixture of various pollutants. 
• Based on Chemical Composition : 
• Inorganic Pollutants: Include oxides of carbon (CO and CO2), sulphur (SO2 and SO3), and nitrogen (NO and NO2), as well as particulate matter like dust and metals. 
• Organic Pollutants: Include hydrocarbons (methane, benzene), VOCs, and organic acids. These pollutants are often associated with industrial activities, vehicle emissions, and the burning of fossil fuels.

Air Pollutants : 

1. Particulate pollutants, often referred to as particulate matter (PM), are a mixture of tiny solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air. These particles vary in size, composition, and origin, and are among the most harmful air pollutants due to their ability to penetrate deep into the respiratory system and even enter the bloodstream.

 

Classification of Particulate Matter: Particulate matter is commonly classified based on the size of the particles:

• PM10 (Coarse Particles): Particles with a diameter of 10 micrometres or smaller. PM10 includes dust, pollen, mould spores, and ash, often generated from road dust, construction activities, and industrial processes. Coarse particles can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, and can cause respiratory issues, especially in people with pre-existing health conditions.

 

• PM2.5 (Fine Particles): Particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or smaller. PM2.5 originates from combustion processes, including vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, residential heating, and agricultural burning. It also forms from chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Fine particles are particularly dangerous as they can penetrate deep into the lungs and reach the bloodstream, leading to severe health issues such as cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, and premature death.

 

• Ultrafine Particles (UFPs): Particles with a diameter of 0.1 micrometres or smaller. UFPs are primarily generated from combustion processes, such as diesel engines, wood burning, and industrial activities. Ultrafine particles are the most hazardous, as they can cross cell membranes and enter various organs, potentially causing systemic inflammation, neurological effects, and exacerbating chronic diseases.

 

1. Fly ash : Fly ash is a coal combustion by product produced in coal based thermal power plants. It refers to ash that is driven out of coal fired boilers together with the flue gases. 

 

In modern coal fired power plants, fly ash is captured by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gas reaches the chimney. The composition of fly ash varies considerably, but all fly ash includes a substantial amount of Silicon dioxide (SiO2), Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and Calcium oxide (CaO), the main mineral compounds in coal- bearing rock strata.

NOTE: The ash that falls to the bottom of the boiler is called bottom ash.

Characteristics of Fly Ash : 

• Harmful for Human health: Fly ash contains toxic constituents like lead, cadmium, chromium, arsenic which can be very dangerous for human health. They contribute heavily to particulate matters in air and cause lung problems.
• Bad for Environment: Toxic content results in both soil pollution and water pollution (toxic leaching)
• Affects large land areas – It spreads easily through air and affects large land areas.
• It is a pozzolan, a substance containing aluminous and siliceous material that forms cement in the presence of water. Hence it can be used in the construction process.

Reducing Fly Ash Pollution : Washing the coal at its place of origin is an important step which ultimately reduces the amount of ash being produced. Increasing R&D, for enhancing the efficiency of power plants, would also help in reducing the ash content. Capturing fly ash before it is released in air by Chimney using various types of precipitators.

Where can the captured fly ash be used?

• Cement industry uses Fly Ash in the manufacturing of Portland Pozzolana Cement. Recently, scientists at IIT- Hyderabad have found ways to turn fly ash into products like paints, textile coatings etc.
• It can also be used for fly ash bricks/ blocks/ and tiles manufacturing, road embankments construction etc.
• Fly Ash may also be utilised in agriculture as soil conditioners.
• It is also used as a substitute of soil/ sand for reclamation of low- lying areas.
• In mining it can also be used for backfilling of mines.

 

Various notification for fly ash utilisation since 1999 : 

The 2016 notification calls for every agency engaged in construction activity within a radius of 300 km of coal- based thermal power plant to use Ash based products for construction. It also mandates the use of ash- based bricks of products in all government schemes and programs.

 

Maharashtra is the first state to have a Fly Ash Utilisation Policy. It is also looking to export fly ash to countries like Singapore and Dubai where it is in demand.

GST rates on fly ash and its products have been reduced to 5%

Launching of ASH Track Mobile App for better management of fly ash produced by thermal power plants in Feb 2018. It connects fly ash producers (TPP) to (fly ash consumers- road contractors etc.) Various awareness campaigns,Through workshops and other programs.

The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has extended fly ash utilisation deadline for thermal power plants with the introduction of penalties for noncompliance.

In India: With low grade of Indian coal, its ash content is as high as 30-45% in comparison to imported coal with 10- 15%. With nearly 55% of our total power production through coal and lignite based Thermal Power Plants (TPP), the fly ash generation in India is very high. About 83% of Fly Ash is utilised.

Key Highlights of the New Notification : 

First fly ash notification was issued in 1999 to ensure 100% fly ash utilisation in India by 2009. This was followed by a similar notification in 2016.  The current notification aims to achieve the objective of 100% utilisation in 3 to 5 years. 

Shorter Fly-ash utilisation cycle: Existing provisions allow TPPs to fully utilise fly ash in a four-year cycle in a staggered manner. The new policy will follow a three-year cycle for 100% utilisation of Fly-ash with a grace period of a year if the percentage of ash utilisation is between 60-80% and two years if it is below 60%. In the near future, all TPPs will have to stick to average ash utilisation of 100% in a 3-year cycle. 

Legacy Fly Ash Utilisation: The progressive utilisation of legacy fly ash has been extended by another 10 years. Fly ash which remains unutilized and consequently gets accumulated is referred to as legacy ash. 

Introduction of Polluter Pays Principle: A fine of Rs 1,000 per tonne of unutilized ash has been introduced if the plant does not achieve at least 80% ash utilisation annually or in three years.

Construction and Transportation: The non-complying power plants will provide ash free-of-cost to agencies engaged in construction activities within a 300 km radius with all transportation cost to be borne by TPPs. 

Role of Central Pollution Control Board: A committee under the chairmanship of CPCB chairman will examine, review and recommend eco-friendly ways on fly ash utilisation. Also, CPCB will have real-time data on ash availability. 

1. Nanoparticles, often defined as particles with a size range of 1 to 100 nanometers, have emerged as a significant focus in environmental research due to their unique properties and potential impacts on health and the environment. Nanoparticles are of particular concern because of their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs, enter the bloodstream, and potentially cause a range of health issues.

Nanoparticles can be both naturally occurring and anthropogenic (man-made). Naturally occurring nanoparticles are found in volcanic ash, sea spray, and soil dust, while anthropogenic nanoparticles are primarily generated through combustion processes, industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, and chemical manufacturing.

Effects of Nanoparticles on the environment : 

• Dust cloud formation : NPs coagulate and form dust clouds, which decrease the intensity of sunlight. Asian brown (dust) clouds carry large amounts of soot and black carbon (NP) and deposit them on the Himalayan glaciers (reduces albedo). This could lead to higher absorption of the sun’s heat and potentially contribute to the increased melting of glaciers. 

 

• NPs and hydroxyl radical (OH) : NPs being very reactive, immediately bind with hydroxyl radicals & ultimately result in their reduction in the troposphere. This reduces the natural ‘pollutant scrubbing capacity’ of the atmosphere.

 

• NPs and ozone depletion : NPs can increase the production of free radicals (atoms, molecules, ions with unpaired valence electrons) like Cl-, which destroy ozone. NPs in the troposphere interact with molecular hydrogen accidentally released from hydrogen fuel cells and other sources. Molecular hydrogen, along with NPs, moves up to the stratosphere, resulting in abundant water vapour in the stratosphere. This will cause stratospheric cooling due to the formation of stratospheric clouds (mostly ice crystals), which destroy ozone. 

 

1. Black Carbon (BC) is a potent climate-forcing agent and a significant component of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the atmosphere. Produced by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass, black carbon is not only a major air pollutant but also a contributor to global warming. 

 

It is short-lived and remains only for days to weeks in the atmosphere before it descends as rain or snow. Thus, the effects of black carbon on atmospheric warming disappear within months of reducing emissions.

India is one of the largest emitters of black carbon globally, primarily due to the widespread use of solid fuels for cooking and heating, diesel-powered vehicles, and agricultural burning. 

1. Brown Carbon (BrC) is a type of organic carbon aerosol that absorbs light, particularly in the ultraviolet and visible spectrum, giving it a brownish colour. It is a subset of organic carbon (OC) and is emitted from the incomplete combustion of organic materials such as biomass burning, fossil fuels, and wildfires. Unlike black carbon, which absorbs light across all wavelengths, brown carbon primarily absorbs shorter wavelengths, such as blue and ultraviolet light, which contributes to its distinct colour. 

 

BLACK CARBON :

Brown Carbon:

Black carbon is inorganic in nature consisting of soot particles that directly come out of combustion process, Black carbon absorbs sunlight and in turn warms the atmosphere. When inhaled it causes severe health problems. Black carbon absorbs light in the visible spectrum. It absorbs both incoming and terrestrial radiations.

Brown carbon or organic carbon, unlike black carbon, comes from complex organic reactions in the airborne atmospheric particles. This includes tar material from smouldering fires or coal combustion, breakdown products from biomass burning, and a mixture of organic compounds given off by vegetation. Brown carbon is light brown in colour and absorbs light in the ultraviolet region. Brown carbon leads to the formation of ground level ozone in the atmosphere.

 

1. Carbon Monoxide (CO) :  Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, and highly toxic gas slightly less dense than air. It is short-lived (lasts only a few months) in the atmosphere. It forms when there is insufficient oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2). In the presence of oxygen, carbon monoxide burns with a blue flame, producing carbon dioxide. 

Worldwide, the largest source of carbon monoxide is natural in origin due to photochemical reactions in the troposphere. Other natural sources of CO include volcanoes, forest fires, and other forms of combustion.Anthropogenic carbon monoxide is produced from the exhaust of internal combustion engines and incomplete combustion of various other fuels. Iron smelting produces carbon monoxide as a by-product.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is not considered a direct greenhouse gas (GHG). In the atmosphere, it is spatially variable and short-lived, having a role in forming ground-level ozone (tropospheric ozone) and can elevated methane concentrations (a strong GHG). 

1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) : Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas. It is heavier than air. Natural sources include volcanoes, hot springs and geysers, and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids. As it is soluble in water, it occurs naturally in groundwater, rivers, lakes, ice caps, glaciers and seawater.

 

CO2 is an asphyxiant gas (asphyxia: a condition arising when the body is deprived of oxygen, causing unconsciousness or death.) Concentrations of 7% may cause suffocation, even with sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, and unconsciousness.

1. Sulphur dioxide : SO2 is a colourless gas which has a nasty, sharp smell. It reacts with other substances to form harmful compounds, such as sulfuric acid, sulphurous acid and sulphate particles.

The largest source of SO2 in the atmosphere is the burning of fossil fuels by power plants and other industrial facilities. Other smaller sources include industrial processes such as extracting metal from ore; natural sources such as Volcanoes; locomotives, ships and other vehicles and heavy equipment that burn fuel with high sulphur content. 

Why is Sulphur dioxide pollution problematic?

Health Issues:

• Short term exposure to SO2 can harm the human respiratory system and make breathing difficult for people with Asthma, particularly children who are sensitive to these effects of SO2. 
• SO2 in the atmosphere can react with other compounds to Form Particulate Matters (PM) which contribute to particulate matter pollution. 
• The fine particles may reduce visibility (haze).

Environmental issues:

• When present in high concentration, SO2 can harm trees and plants by damaging foliage and decreasing growth. Further, it also contributes to ACID rain which can harm sensitive ecosystems.

Cultural Issues:

• Deposition of particles (formed by SO2 reacting with other compounds) on culturally important objects, monuments, statues etc. can cause discolouration and damage.

India has emerged as the largest SO2 emitter in the world : NASA data 

India has the highest number (more than 15%) of all anthropogenic SO2 hotspots in the world detected by the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) satellite. The major SO2 emission hotspots in India are Singrauli (Madhya Pradesh, Neyveli & Chennai in TN, Talcher & Jharsuguda in Odisha, Korba in Chhattisgarh, Kutch in Gujarat, Ramagundam in Telangana and Chandrapur and Koradi in Maharashtra.

Other hotspots across the globe highlighted by NASA data : Norilsk smelter Complex in Russia being the largest SO2 emission hotspot in the world. It is followed by Kriel in Mpumalanga province in South Africa and Zagroz in Iran.

Key reasons for high sulphur pollution in India : 

Nearly all the SO2 emission in India comes from coal burning power plants which are the major source of energy for India. The vast majority of power plants in India lack flue-gas desulfurization technology to reduce their air pollution.

Note :  Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) is a set of technologies used to remove SO2 from exhaust gas of fossil fuel Based power plants.

Recent steps in India : 

In Dec 2015, the MoEF&CC had introduced for the first time SO2 emission limits for coal power plants with an initial deadline to retrofit technology to control emissions from power generations by 2017. This deadline has now been shifted in 2024.

1. Nitrogen Dioxide(NO2) belongs to one of the highly reactive gases known as oxides of nitrogen or nitrogen oxides (NOx). Other nitrogen oxides include nitrous acid and nitric acid. Formation: NO2 is formed when fossil fuels like coal, oil, gas and diesel are burned at high temperatures. It is also formed during the burning of wood and natural gases.

Effects of NO2 :

 Health effects : 

• Breathing air with a high concentration of NO2 can irritate airways in the human respiratory system. Such exposures can aggravate respiratory diseases, particularly asthma.
• NO2 along with other NOx reacts with other chemicals in the air to form both particulate matter and ozone. Both of these are also harmful to the respiratory system.

Environmental effects:

• NO2 and other NOx interact with water, oxygen and other chemicals in the atmosphere and form acid rain. Acid rain harms sensitive ecosystems such as lakes and forests.
• The nitrate particles make the air hazy and create visibility challenges.
• NOx in the atmosphere contributes to nutrient pollution in coastal waters.

1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are used in refrigerators, air conditioners and aerosol sprays. Since the late 1970s, the use of CFCs has been heavily regulated because of their destructive effects on the ozone layer. 

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances including CFCs which are responsible for ozone depletion.

 

1. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are a large group of carbon-based chemicals that easily evaporate at room temperature. For example, formaldehyde, which evaporates from paint, has a boiling point of only –19 °C. Formaldehyde causes irritation to the eyes and nose and allergies.

The main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellents, wood preservatives, and other products. Health effects: irritation of the eye, nose and throat, headaches, nausea and loss of coordination. Long term health effects: suspected to damage the liver and other parts of the body. 

1. Benzene is a natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals. Because benzene has a high octane number, it is an important component of gasoline (petrol). It is an air pollutant emitted from gasoline stations, motor vehicle exhausts and fuel evaporation, the burning coal and oil, and various other sources. 

 

Urban areas generally have higher ambient air concentration of benzene than other areas. Indoor sources of benzene pollution are material used in construction, remodelling, and decorating. Benzene is also present in particle board, furniture, plywood, fibreglass, flooring adhesives, paints, wood panelling, paint removers etc.  Therefore, new buildings or recently decorated indoor environments have been associated with high concentration of benzene from materials and furniture. Use of fuel for space heating like coal, wood, gas, kerosene, LPG etc. also produce benzene.

Benzene increases the risk of cancer and other illnesses. Benzene is a notorious cause of bone marrow failure.

 

1. Ethylene is widely used in the chemical industry. Much of this production goes toward polyethylene, a widely used plastic containing polymer chains of ethylene units in various chain lengths. Ethylene is also an important natural plant hormone, used in agriculture to force the ripening of fruits. Ethylene is of low toxicity to humans and exposure to excess ethylene cause adverse health effects like headache, drowsiness, dizziness and unconsciousness.

Note : Ethylene is not but ethylene oxide is a carcinogen (cancer-causing agent).

 

1. Asbestos refers to a set of six naturally occurring silicate fibrous minerals –– chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. It is now known that prolonged inhalation of asbestos fibres can cause serious and fatal illnesses including lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis).

 

1. Radon : It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined inside the house and causes lung cancers.

 

1. Lead : It is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc. It can cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer. 

Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is used as an anti-knock agent in petrol for a smooth and easy running of vehicles. The lead particles coming out from the exhaust pipes of vehicles are mixed with air. It produces injurious effects on kidney and liver and interferes with the development of red blood cells. Lead mixed with water and food can create cumulative poisoning. It has long term effects on children as it lowers intelligence.

1. Metallic Oxides : Oxides of iron, aluminium, manganese, magnesium, zinc and other metals have an adverse effect due to deposition of dust on plants during mining operations and metallurgical processes. They create physiological, biochemical and developmental disorders in plants and also contribute towards reproductive failure in plants.

1. Petroleum Coke : Petcoke, or petroleum coke, is a solid carbon material derived from oil refining. Petcoke is the solid residue that remains after the oil is processed. Petcoke can be classified into two types: green petcoke and calcined petcoke.

• Green petcoke is the raw material that has not been treated or purified, while calcined petcoke is the product of heating green petcoke to remove moisture and volatile matter. It is used as a fuel in various industries, such as cement, steel, power and aluminium.

Petcoke also poses significant environmental and health challenges, such as its high sulphur content, heavy metal content and contribution to greenhouse gas emissions.

Features of Petcoke : 

• Petcoke has several features that make it attractive as an energy source, such as its high calorific value (> 7800 Kcal/Kg as compared to 3500-4500 Kcal/Kg for coal), low ash content and low price compared to other fossil fuels.

• Petcoke has a high calorific value, which means it can produce more heat per unit of mass than other fossil fuels. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), the average heat content of petcoke is about 30 MJ/kg, compared to 19 MJ/kg for coal and 44 MJ/kg for natural gas.

• Petcoke has a low ash content, which means it produces less solid waste and requires less maintenance for boilers and furnaces. The EIA estimates that the average ash content of petcoke is about 0.4%, compared to 10% for coal and 0.1% for natural gas.

• Petcoke has a low price compared to other fossil fuels, due to its abundant supply and low demand. The EIA reports that the average price of petcoke in the U.S. was $31 per ton in 2019, compared to $53 per ton for coal and $60 per ton for natural gas.

Significances of Petcoke : Petcoke is a significant source of energy for various industries around the world, especially in developing countries where energy demand is growing rapidly. According to the EIA, the global production of petcoke was about 140 million tons in 2019, with China, India and the U.S. being the top three producers. The global consumption of petcoke was about 120 million tons in 2019, with India, China and Brazil being the top three consumers.

• Cement production : The main use of petcoke is as a fuel for cement production, which accounts for about 50% of global consumption. Cement is a key material for construction and infrastructure development, and requires a lot of heat for its production process. Petcoke provides a cheap and efficient source of heat for cement kilns, which can burn both green and calcined petcoke.

• Steel production : Another major use of petcoke is as a fuel for steel production, which accounts for about 20% of global consumption. Steel is an essential material for various industries such as automotive, construction and machinery. Steel production involves reducing iron ore into pig iron using coke (a form of coal) as a reducing agent. Petcoke can be used as a substitute for coke in steel making, as it has similar properties and lower cost.

• Other uses : Other uses of petcoke include power generation (about 15% of the global consumption), aluminium production (about 5% of the global consumption) and other industrial applications (about 10% of the global consumption). Power generation involves burning petcoke in boilers or gas turbines to produce electricity. Aluminium production involves smelting alumina into aluminium using anodes made from calcined petcoke. Other industrial applications include paper making, fertiliser production and chemical manufacturing.

Challenges with Petcoke : 

Despite its advantages as a fuel source, petcoke also poses significant environmental and health challenges that need to be addressed urgently.

• High Sulphur Content : The main challenge of petcoke is its high sulphur content, which can range from 1% to 7% depending on the quality of the crude oil and the refining process. When petcoke is burned, it releases sulphur dioxide (SO2), a pollutant that causes acid rain, smog and respiratory problems. According to the EIA, the average sulphur content of petcoke in the U.S. was 5.5% in 2019, compared to 0.6% for coal and 0.1% for natural gas.

• Heavy Metal Content : Another challenge of petcoke is its heavy metal content, which can include mercury, arsenic, lead and cadmium. These metals are toxic and can accumulate in the soil, water and air, posing risks to human health and wildlife. According to a study by the Argonne National Laboratory, the average metal content of petcoke in the U.S. was 0.02% for mercury, 0.05% for arsenic, 0.08% for lead and 0.01% for cadmium in 2013.

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions : A third challenge of petcoke is its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, which are responsible for global warming and climate change. Petcoke has a high carbon content, which means it emits more carbon dioxide (CO2) per unit of energy than other fossil fuels.

According to the EIA, the average carbon content of petcoke in the U.S. was 90%, compared to 71% for coal and 50% for natural gas in 2019. The EIA also estimates that the average CO2 emission factor of petcoke in the U.S. was 102 kg/GJ, compared to 95 kg/GJ for coal and 56 kg/GJ for natural gas in 2019.

1. Heavy fuel oil (HFO) is the term used to describe the viscous, low-cost fuels still mainly used in international shipping. HFO’s consistency would make clean up after a potential spill extremely complex in the Arctic, says numerous reports as well as Arctic Indigenous organisations.

This fuel is slower to evaporate than other fuels, which makes it more prone to getting trapped in ice, making recovery a challenge, especially in the Canadian Arctic, a region with very little infrastructure and response capabilities. HFO also produces black carbon.

Black carbon is made up of fine matter produced by incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels, which when deposited on ice and snow, absorbs heat instead of reflecting heat, contributing to global warming.

 

Air Pollution: Effects

1. Fog :  It is one of the major weather hazards, impacting road,aviation transportation, economy and public life. Fog is a visible mass consisting of cloud water droplets suspended in the air or near the Earth’s surface.

Fog usually appears over a region of high pressure where humidity is greater than 75%. Moisture in the atmosphere could condense around particulate matter of diameter in the range of nanometres, to cause fog. Land use changes and increasing pollution are responsible for growing fog occurrence.

1. Smog : Smog is a kind of air pollution, originally named for the mixture of smoke and fog in the air. Classical smog results from the large amount of coal burning in the area and is caused by a mixture of sulphur dioxide and fog. Today, most of the smog that we see is Photochemical Smog (or ground level ozone). It is produced when nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight react with  Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere. When sunlight hits these chemicals, they form airborne particles and ground level Ozone or Smog.

Sulphurous Smog : Sulphurous smog is also called London smog (first formed in London due to the industrial revolution). It results from a high concentration of sulphur oxides in the air. It is caused by the use of sulphur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal (the primary source of electricity generation in India). This smog is aggravated by dampness and a high concentration of suspended particulate matter in the air.

Photochemical smog : is also known as summer smog or Los Angeles smog. It occurs most prominently in  urban areas with high vehicular emissions. It forms when nitrogen oxides & volatile organic compounds react together in the presence of sunlight to form ozone (a secondary pollutant). The resulting smog  causes a light brownish colouration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility, plant damage, irritation of the eyes and respiratory distress.

Harmful impacts of Smog : 

• Health impacts: Ground level ozone, SO2, NO2, CO are especially harmful for senior citizens, children, and people with heart and lung conditions such as bronchitis and Asthma. It may inflame breathing passage, impacting the functioning of lungs thus causing breathlessness, wheezing and coughing. It can also cause irritation to eyes and nose. It also dries out the protective membrane of the nose and throat and interferes with the body’s ability to fight infection, increasing susceptibility to illness.
• By decreasing visibility, it slows down traffic and increases the chance of accidents.
• Smog also negatively affects the aesthetics of the city by making the sky brown and grey.

Smog Towers : They are structures designed as large- scale air purifiers to reduce air pollution particles. The smog tower sucks the polluted air, which is purified by the multiple layers before re-circulated into the atmosphere.

To purify the air ; the highly effective H14 grade Highly Effective Particulate Arrestance (HPEA) filter could be used. This filter can clean up to 99.99 % Particulate Matter (PM) present in the air with the help of pre- filter and activated carbon. The Supreme Court in Nov 2019 asked the centre and the Delhi government to come up with a road map on installing smog towers in the NCR to combat air pollution. Delhi got its first Smog Tower in Jan 2020. It was installed at Delhi’s popular Lajpat Nagar Central Market.

1. Haze : Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky (no condensation involved. Smog is like haze, but there is condensation in smog). Sources for haze particles include farming (ploughing in dry weather), traffic, industry, and wildfires. 
2. Acid Rain : Acid rain refers to a form of precipitation that contains higher than normal amounts of acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid. This phenomenon is primarily the result of human activities that release sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere. These chemicals react with water vapour, oxygen, and other substances to form acidic compounds, which then fall to the ground as acid rain, snow, sleet, or fog.

Chemistry of Acid Rain :  Basic steps involved in the formation of acid rain:

• The atmosphere receives oxides of sulphur and nitrogen from natural and human-made sources.
• Some of these oxides fall back directly to the ground as dry deposition.
• Sunlight stimulates the formation of photo oxidants (such as ozone) in the atmosphere.
• These photo oxidants interact with the oxides of sulphur & nitrogen and other gases (like NH3) to produce H2SO4 (sulphuric acid) and HNO3 (nitric acid) by oxidation.
• Acid rain containing ions of sulphate, nitrate, ammonium and hydrogen falls as wet deposition. 

 

Effects of Acid Rain : 

• Impact on Ecosystems : Acid rain has devastating effects on natural ecosystems. It can lead to the acidification of lakes and streams, making the water toxic for fish and other aquatic life. Acid rain also depletes essential nutrients in the soil, negatively impacting forests and other vegetation.
• Damage to Infrastructure : Acid rain corrodes buildings, bridges, and monuments, particularly those made of limestone, marble, and concrete. The acid reacts with the minerals in these materials, causing structural damage over time.
• Human Health Concerns : While acid rain does not directly harm humans, the pollutants that cause it (SO₂ and NOx) can contribute to respiratory problems, such as asthma, bronchitis, and other lung conditions.
• Economic Impact : The damage caused by acid rain to forests, crops, water bodies, and infrastructure leads to significant economic losses. Industries such as fishing, agriculture, and tourism can be severely affected.

 

1. Ocean acidification refers to the process by which the pH of the ocean decreases, becoming more acidic due to the absorption of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere. This phenomenon is directly linked to air pollution, particularly the emission of CO₂ from human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels. As a significant environmental issue, ocean acidification has far-reaching consequences for marine life, ecosystems, and human societies. 

The Process of Ocean Acidification : 

• Carbon Dioxide Absorption : The oceans act as a carbon sink, absorbing approximately 25-30% of the CO₂ emitted into the atmosphere. This process helps to mitigate the effects of global warming but leads to a chemical reaction in seawater.
• Formation of Carbonic Acid : When CO₂ dissolves in seawater, it reacts with water molecules to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃). This weak acid then dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and hydrogen ions (H⁺), increasing the acidity of the ocean.
• Decrease in pH Levels : The increase in hydrogen ions leads to a decrease in pH levels, making the ocean more acidic. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the pH of the ocean has dropped by approximately 0.1 units, representing a 26% increase in acidity.

 

• Aerosols and their Impact on Monsoon Rainfall : Scientists have found that aerosols have led to increased incidents of high rainfall events in the foothills of the Himalayan Region (causing regional disparity in rainfall distribution). The region is associated with high aerosol loading, much of which is black carbon & dust. Here, the air mass is also forced from a low elevation to a higher elevation (rainfall due to orographic forcing)

Aerosols remain one of the most uncertain factors in climate projection. They can affect the radiative balance of the climate system by directly scattering or absorbing sunlight or acting as cloud condensation nuclei & thus modifying the optical properties and lifetimes of clouds.

Aerosols lead to enhancement or suppression of the Indian summer monsoon rainfall depending on their duration & scale, along with their tendency to scatter sunlight directly back into space or by increasing the size of cloud particles, thus negatively affecting their capacity to absorb sunlight. This leads to reduced temperatures over land (due to smog), resulting in a weaker land-sea temperature gradient, a vital force required to pull the monsoon circulation from ocean to land.

ATAL – Negatively Affects Indian Monsoon Asian Tropopause Aerosol Layer (ATAL) covers South Asia during the monsoon season & has been suspected of having a role in controlling the monsoon precipitation. ATAL is formed because of the convective transport of aerosols from the lower atmosphere to the Upper Troposphere & Lower Stratosphere (UTLS — 12-18 km). ATAL is made up of sulphates along with black carbon, organic aerosols, nitrates & dust particles. Black carbon aerosols in ATAL are transported from North India & East China during El Niño. Sulphate aerosols are transported from East Asia. The increase of these pollutants in the UTLS leads to the thickening & widening of the ATAL.   The higher amounts of sulphate aerosols in the UTLS lead to a cooling effect on the earth’s surface by scattering incoming solar radiation & negatively affect the monsoon. While El Niño leads to a decrease in rainfall over India, the inclusion of aerosols amplifies the decrease rainfall by 17% over central India.

OZONE POLLUTION

OZONE (O3) : Ozone is a gas composed of three atoms of oxygen (o3). It occurs in both earth’s upper atmosphere and at ground level. Ozone can be “good” or “bad” for health and the environment depending on where it’s found in the atmosphere. Stratospheric Ozone is good because it protects living things from ultraviolet radiation of the sun. Ground level ozone is bad because it can trigger a variety of health problems, particularly for children, the elderly, and people of all ages who have lung diseases such as asthma.

What is Ground Level Ozone Pollution?

Ozone pollution is a secondary pollution. It is not emitted directly into the air. It is created by chemical reactions between oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) and Volatile Organic Compounds that are emitted from combustion sources like vehicles, industry, power plants etc. In the presence of sunlight and heat. It is most likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban environments. It may also reach a high level during colder winter months because of high pollution and sunlight. Since it can also be transported for long distances by wind, it may also impact rural areas.

Why is it increasing in Delhi? High level of pollution, with high sunshine and high ambient temperatures.

Negative impact of Ozone Pollution : 

• Health impacts : Ozone is highly reactive (oxidising) and can have immediate adverse effect on those suffering from Asthma and respiratory conditions. Breathing ozone can create health problems like chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, and airway inflammation. It can also impact lung function and harm lung tissues.

Further, people with certain genetic conditions, and people who have lower intake of Vitamin C and Vitamin E are at greater risk of ozone exposure.

• Environmental Impact : Ozone impacts sensitive vegetation and ecosystems, including forests, park, wildlife refuges, and wilderness areas. In particular it harms sensitive vegetation during the growing season.

Monitoring of Ozone : 

• NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) by CPCB measures Ozone. 
• AQI and SAFAR measurements also have listed ozone as a pollutant which is regularly measured.

INCREASE IN OZONE LEVELS EVEN DURING LOCKDOWN : CSE STUDY (JUNE 2020) During lockdown, air pollutants like PM 2.5 and NOx etc. plummeted to the lowest in most cities. But, invisible ozone raised its ugly head on several days and in several cities.

Note: For analysis of ozone trends, CSE has adopted the global best practice of considering the maximum rolling eight -hour average during 24 hours as opposed to a fixed time slot of 8 am to 4 pm daily that CPCB has adopted.

Why? Ozone is formed when NOx, VOCs and gases react with each other under the influence of sunlight and temperature. A high NOx level can again react with ozone and map it up. The ozone that escapes to cleaner areas has no NOx to further cannibalise it- and as a result, ozone concentration builds up in these areas.  

OZONE DEPLETION : Ozone depletion refers to the thinning of the Earth’s ozone layer in the stratosphere, particularly over the polar regions. This phenomenon poses a significant threat to life on Earth as the ozone layer plays a crucial role in absorbing harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. The depletion is primarily caused by human-made chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS). 

There is a steady decline in the total ozone volume in Earth’s stratosphere. A much more significant decrease in stratospheric ozone is observed around Earth’s polar regions. The unique cocktail of the powerful polar vortex and low temperatures generates stratospheric clouds that react with CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances and destroy the Ozone layer in the process.

Ozone holes are most commonly found over the Antarctic region (experiences strong polar vortex). They are comparatively rare & small over the Arctic (because the polar vortex here is comparatively weak and temperatures are relatively high).

Depletion of ozone is due to increased halocarbons in the atmosphere. Halocarbons are compounds in which the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is replaced by halogens — a group of reactive non-metallic elements like fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc. 

Tropical Ozone Hole : Recently, a large, year-round ozone hole was discovered in the lower stratosphere over the tropics. It has been in the tropics since the 1980s but was discovered recently. The tropical Ozone Hole is an all-season ozone hole compared to the Antarctic Ozone Hole, which is predominantly visible during springtime. It is seven times greater in area than the Antarctic ozone hole, and the depth of both is almost the same.

 

AIR POLLUTION SITUATION – VARIOUS REPORTS / STUDIES 

1. WORLD AIR QUALITY REPORT, 2022 : 

Report is published by the Swiss technology company IQAIR. This report only includes PM2.5 data. The report is based on the World’s largest database of ground Based air pollution measurements, aggregating PM 2.5 data published in real time from ground Based sensors throughout 2022. The 2022 report has data for 131 countries.

Key highlights of the report:

• Chad, Iraq, Pakistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh are the 5 most polluted countries in 2022.
• Delhi had an average PM2.5 level of 92.6 μg/m3 in 2022, a little below the average of 96.4 μg/m3 in 2021.

The report makes a distinction between New Delhi and Delhi, with New Delhi having an annual average PM2.5 level of 89.1 μg/m3.

The WHO guideline for annual PM2.5 levels is 5 μg/m3.

• Lahore was the most polluted city in the world, followed by Hotan in China, and Bhiwadi in Rajasthan.
• New Delhi is the second most polluted capital city in the world, with N’Djamena in Chad topping the list.
• A total of 39 Indian cities (including ‘Delhi’ and ‘New Delhi’) are on the list of 50 of the world’s most polluted cities based on annual average PM2.5 levels in 2022.

 

• 2021 STATE OF INDIA’S ENVIRONMENT REPORT (SOE) REPORT : 

SOE is an annual publication brought down to earth in association with Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a Delhi based non- profit.

 

• WHO AIR POLLUTION STANDARDS :

The World Health Organisation (WHO) in its first-ever update since 2005 has tightened global air pollution standard About World Health Organisation (WHO) air pollution standards:

Since 1987, WHO has periodically issued health based air quality guidelines (AQG) to assist governments and civil society to reduce human exposure to air pollution. 

The WHO air quality guidelines were last published in 2006: Air quality guidelines – global update 2005. Since then, there has been a marked increase in evidence on the adverse health effects of air pollution, built on advances in air pollution measurement and exposure assessment.

The overall objective of the updated global guidelines is to offer quantitative health-based recommendations for air quality management, expressed as long or short-term concentrations for a number of key air pollutants. 

In this guideline update, recommendations on AQG levels are formulated, together with interim targets, as can be seen in the table: The guidelines also highlight good practices for the management of certain types of particulate matter (for example, black carbon/elemental carbon, ultrafine particles, and particles originating from sand and dust storms) for which there is currently insufficient quantitative evidence to set air quality guideline levels. 

The present guidelines are applicable to both outdoor and indoor environments globally. However, these guidelines do not cover occupational settings, owing to the specific characteristics of the relevant exposures and risk reduction policies.

Whilst not legally-binding, like all WHO guidelines, AQGs are an evidence-informed tool for policy-makers to guide legislation and policies, in order to reduce levels of air pollutants and decrease the burden of disease that results from exposure to air pollution worldwide.

AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENT IN INDIA 

Air monitoring network and agencies involved:  Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) initiated National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) programme in the year 1984 with 7 stations at Agra and Anpara. Subsequently the programme was renamed as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP).

The network currently consists of 804 operating stations covering 344 cities/towns in 28 states and 6 Union Territories of the country. The monitoring is being carried out with the help of Central Pollution Control Board; State Pollution Control Boards; Pollution Control Committees; National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur.

CPCB coordinates with these agencies to ensure the uniformity, consistency of air quality data and provides technical and financial support to them for operating the monitoring stations

NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS (NAAQS) BY CPCB

Ambient Air Quality refers to the condition or quality of air surrounding us in the Outdoors. NAAQS are the standards for ambient air quality set up by CPCB and are applicable nationwide.

The CPCB has been conferred this power by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. Current Standards were set up in 2009 and were an improvement over previous standards.

Pollutants covered CO, SO2, NOx, PM10, PM2.5, Ozone, NH3, lead, Arsenic, Benzene, Benzopyrene, Nickel.(12 in number). NAAQS doesn’t meet the WHO’s existing standards (2005 guidelines) and considerably differ from updated guidelines. For instance, NAAQS specify an annual limit of 60 microgram per cubic metre for PM 10 and 100 for a 24-hour period which are 15 and 45 respectively in revised WHO guidelines.

AIR QUALITY INDEX (AQI) : 

Air Quality Index is a number used by government agencies to communicate to the public how polluted the air quality is or how polluted it is forecasted to become. In India, National Air Quality Index was launched in Sep 2014 as part of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan by MoEF&CC. The CPCB, the nodal agency for air pollution data in India, has developed a colour- coded air – quality index to mark hazardous levels for the public benefit. 

There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, moderately, polluted, poor, very poor, and severe. It considers 8 pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and PB).

Initially it was launched in 10 cities and today it covers 24 cities in 10 states.

Air Quality Early Warning System (AQEWS) : The Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune, has developed a new Decision Support System (DSS) and extended the ability of the existing AQEWS to have decision-making capability for air quality management. IITM is an autonomous Institute of the Ministry of Earth Sciences. Air warning System integrated with DSS will become a user-friendly tool for air-quality management in and around Delhi.

SAMEER APP : It is an app by CPCB which provides hourly updates of the National Air Quality Index (NAQI). In 100 cities. The listed cities are colour coded based on their AQI levels. The Map view format can also be used to track air quality across the map of India. The app can also be used for filling and tracking complaints related to garbage dumping, road rust, vehicular emissions or other pollution issues in a particular area. SAMEER fairs better than SAFAR- Air and Air visual app, given its wide coverage and future to raise a complaint.

CONTINUOUS AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEM (CAAQMS) : These are devices which monitor ambient air quality on a real- time basis through meteorological sensors. They consist of sampling, conditioning and analytical components through software designed to provide direct real- time continuous monitoring of ambient air quality. Installation of CAAQMS was initiated in 2014 in 17 categories of highly polluting industries and common pollution treatment facilities in India.

SAFAR: SYSTEM OF AIR QUALITY AND WEATHER FORECASTING AND RESEARCH : Introduced by: Ministry of Earth Science, GoI.  Developed by: Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune along with Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF).

A research Based initiative of integrating Air Quality with health advisories and Food Security. It measures air quality of metropolitan cities, by measuring the overall pollution level and location specific air quality in near real- time, of the city. It aims to make India self- sufficient in providing frontier research based scientific accredited robust air quality forecasting systems. It also provides air pollution forecasts 1-3 days in advance for the first time in India.

COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION INDEX : CEPI is an environmental assessment index developed by CPCB and IIT Delhi in 2009 to assess the environmental quality of identified industrial clusters, incorporating air, water and the land pollution. This helps to plan individual pollution mitigation measures for air, water and soil in the respective industrial area.

INDIGENOUS AIR UNIQUE- QUALITY MONITORING (AUM) (AUG 2020) : With the support of Department of Science and Technology’s Clean Air Research Initiative, researchers at GVP college of Engineering, Visakhapatnam has developed an indigenous photonic system for real- time remote monitoring for air parameters. Contribution was also made from research at Vellore Institute of Technology and the system had CATS, Ecosystems, Nashik as the technology partner for commercialization. The system is titled AUM (Air Unique- Quality Monitoring).

Significance  : It can boost nation’s efforts towards self- reliance in high hand technologies. Boost India’s health, economy, and environmental outcomes.

Need : According to WHO, 7.5 million fatalities take place every year due to air pollution worldwide. The current systems and technologies used for air quality are prohibitively expensive for wider deployment. This underlines the need for a cost- effective real time air- quality monitoring system like AUM. 

 

INSTITUTIONS / INITIATIVES / PROGRAMS / SCHEMES

CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (CPCB) : India’s Central Pollution Control Board sets national ambient air quality standards and is responsible for both testing air quality and assisting governments in planning to meet such standards (1974)

AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981 : Provides for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution through boards established under this act like Central Pollution Control Board. (1981)

ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION (PREVENTION AND CONTROL) AUTHORITY (1998-2020) : EPCA was a Supreme Court mandated body tasked with taking various measures to tackle air pollution in the National Capital Region (NCR). MoEF&CC notified this body in 1998 under the EPA, 1986.

Mandate : Protect and improve the quality of environment and prevent and control environmental pollution in the NCR. It is also mandated to implement the Graded Response Active plan (GRAP) in NCR as per the pollution level. The Authority can take complaints suo motu or on the basis of a filed complaint.

Key contribution of EPCA in 22 years of existence : 

• Notification of Graded Response Action Plan 
• Early adoption of BS- VI fuel standards
• Suggestions for construction of the regional rapid transport system. 

THE COMMISSION FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN NATIONAL CAPITAL AND ADJOINING AREAS : The commission has been set up to monitor and check air pollution levels in the NCR and adjoining region. It supersedes all existing bodies. The commission shall have exclusive jurisdiction in respect of matters covered by the ordinance.

The law says “No other individual, or body, or authority, constituted either under the law enacted by parliament or by state government or nominated in terms of judicial order shall act upon or have jurisdiction in relation to the matters covered by this ordinance”.

Powers of CPCB/ SPCB continue: The CPCB and its state branches have the power to implement provisions of the Environment Protection Act for air, water and land pollution.

However, in case of dispute or clash of jurisdictions, the Commission’s writ will prevail specific to matters concerning air pollution.

The commission will look at : Coordination between states, Planning and execution of policy and interventions, Operations of industry, Inspections, Research into the cause of pollution etc. The powers to levy fines– ranging up to Rs 1 crore or five years of prison also lies with the commission. The commission will be empowered to constitute special investigative groups for stricter implementation of air pollution norms on the ground.

Structure : There will be at least six permanent members and it will be headed by a former or incumbent secretary to the Gol, or chief secretary to a state government.

18 members : 

• Full time chairperson (secretary to Gol or chief secretary to state)
• Two full time members- who are or have been joint secretaries to the Government of India.
• Three full time independent technical members with specified scientific knowledge and experience in matters relating to air pollution.
• Representative of the secretary of MoEF&CC- who shall be an officer not below the rank of joint- secretary
• Five ex- officio members- who are either chief secretaries or secretaries in charge of the department dealing with environment protection in Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Two ex officio technical members from the CPCB and ISRO 
• Three representatives of NGOs with experience in combating air pollution.
• One representative of the NITI Aayog, not below the rank of joint secretary or advisor.
• Representatives of various other ministries including agriculture, petroleum, road transport and highways etc. will be associate members.

 

Note : Only the NGT, and not civil courts, is authorised to hear cases where the commission is involved. Area covered: Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. 

 

How is it different from EPCA?

	EPCA	Commission
Area Coverage	NCR	NCR and adjoining areas.
State representation was absent in EPCA, but is present in the commission.
The new 18- member commission brings together the Centre, states, and other stakeholders on one collaborative platform.
EPCA was a Supreme Court mandated body, whereas the commission was a statutory body.
The commission has the mandate/ powers to coordinate among states, which was absent in case of EPCA.

 

GRADED RESPONSE ACTION PLAN (GRAP) :

WHY IN NEWS? With the deteriorating air quality in Delhi, the GRAP was triggered from 15th October. With these stricter measures to fight air pollution will come into force in Delhi and its neighbouring NCR. (OCT 2020)

GRAP is Delhi’s five- step escalating plan to counter air pollution. It was formulated in 2016 by the Environmental Pollution Control Authority (EPCA) and approved by SC in the same year. MoEF&CC had notified GRAP for Delhi and NCR in 2017 and it draws its authority from this notification. It institutionalised measures to be taken when air quality deteriorates.

The plan is incremental in nature. The natural scope and rigour of measures to be taken is linked to levels of pollution viz. Severe or Emergency, severe, very poor, Moderate to poor and Moderate.

Note: GRAP works only as an emergency Measures and doesn’t include actions by various state governments to be taken throughout the year to tackle industrial, vehicular, and combustion emission. 

Various directives of GRAP kick in based on the recommendations of a committee of experts. For e.g. starting 15th OCT 2020 – Generators sets can’t be used in Delhi and NCR except the ones used for emergency and essential services.

SIGNIFICANCE : 

GRAP has been successful in doing two things that had not been done before:

• Creating a step-by- step for the entire Delhi- NCR region.
• Getting on board several agencies: All pollution control boards, industrial area authorities, municipal corporations etc.
• Fixed accountability and deadlines. For each action to be taken under a particular air quality category, executing agencies are clearly marked. In a city like Delhi which has multiplicity of authority, this has had a crucial difference.

EPCA along with GRAP has contributed to three major policy decisions:

Closure of thermal power plant at Badarpur, bringing BS- VI fuel to Delhi before the deadline set initially, and the ban on Pet Coke as a fuel in Delhi- NCR.

NATIONAL CLEAN AIR PROGRAM (NCAP) :  The National Clean Air Programme is a pollution control initiative that was launched by the Ministry of Environment in Jan 2019 with the intention to cut the concentration of coarse particulate matter (PM10) and fine particles or PM 2.5 by at least 20% (20-30%) in the next five years (i.e. by 2024), with 2017 as the base year for comparison. It is a long term time bound national level strategy to tackle air pollution across India in a Comprehensive manner.

Which are the cities covered? 102 Non- attainment Cities identified on the basis of Ambient Air quality Data for the period 2011-2015 and WHO report 2014/18. 

With the exception of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Bengaluru, most of the cities chosen are tier two cities. Maharashtra tops the list with 17 cities including Pune and Nagpur, while UP is second with 15 cities, including Lucknow and Varanasi. No cities from Manipur, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Tripura, Goa, Kerala and Haryana are in the list.

OBJECTIVES : 

• Ensure implementation of prevention, control and abatement measures for air pollution
• Improve the monitoring network.
• Enhance Public awareness regarding air pollution and capacity building measures. 

Who all will participate?

Apart from experts from Industry and Academia, various ministers like Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Ministry of Heavy Industries, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Ministry of agriculture, Ministry of Health, NITI Aayog, and CBCB will also participate.

Key Steps being taken

Pollution Reduction measures : Plantation drives, promotion of better technology, sectoral interventions like electric vehicle promotion, promoting renewable energy, waste management etc. City Specific Plan – A separate emergency action plan will be created for each of the 102 cities. It will include measures for strengthening the monitoring network, reducing vehicular/ industrial emissions, increasing public awareness etc.

Enhancing R&D and data collection : Studies related to air pollution and its impact will be taken. Monitoring infrastructure will be expanded and will start monitoring rural areas as well. A National Emission inventory will be established to provide proper inputs for future policy making.

Strengthening various Pollution related institutions : 

A National Apex Committee under MOEF&CC, a steering committee under Secretary (environment) and a monitoring committee (under joint secretary) will be established.

There will be project monitoring committees at the state- level with scientists and trained personnel.

In addition sectoral working groups, National level project monitoring units, state level project monitoring units, city level review committee under Municipal Commissioner and DM level committee in the districts are to be constituted under NCAP for Effective implementation and success of the program. Increased focus on awareness generation and people’s participation.

Why in the news ? : The Centre has set a new target of a 40% reduction in particulate matter concentration in cities covered under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) by 2026, updating the earlier goal of 20 to 30% reduction by 2024. 

About NCAP : Launched in 2019 for reducing comprehensive mitigation actions for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution. Initially envisaged to achieve targets of 20 to 30 % reduction in Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentration by 2024 across the country taking 2017 as the base year.

 Key Features : Preparation of City-specific action plans which include measures for strengthening the air quality monitoring network, reducing vehicular and industrial emissions, increasing public awareness, etc. 

Implemented in 132 cities –  123 Non-Attainment cities (NACs) identified under NCAP based on non-conforming to National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) consecutively for five years.

8 million Plus Cities (MPCs) identified by 15th Finance Commission (XV-FC), for receiving performance-based grants for air quality improvement. 

PRANA (Portal for Regulation of Air-pollution in Non-Attainment cities) portal monitors the implementation of NCAP.

Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan 

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change will launch Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan under NCAP.  131 cities to be ranked in the country for implementing City Action Plans prepared NCAP for reducing air pollution upto 40% by 2025-26. 

Cities are categorised into 3 groups based on population (population > 10 lakh, population between 3 to 10 lakh and population < 3 lakh). 

For the survekshan cities are required to do the annual self-assessment as per the framework provided on PRANA online portal. Report implementation of activities and measures taken in respect of solid waste management, road dust management, management of construction and demolition waste, control of vehicular emissions and industrial pollution. Based on the self-assessment and third party assessment, 3 best performing cities in each group will be given a cash award.

BHARAT STAGE EMISSION STANDARDS

Bharat stage emission standards (first introduced in 2000) have been instituted by the Gol to regulate the output of certain air pollutants (NOx, CO, HC, PM, SOx) by vehicles and other equipment using internal combustion engines. As the stage goes up, the control on emissions becomes stricter. The standards and timeline for implementation are set up by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and climate change.

Dates of Application : 

BS-IV: BS- IV norms are applicable throughout the country from 1st April 2017.

BS-V: Gol has decided to skip the standards and directly move to BS- VI standards by 2020.

BS- VI: Introduced in Delhi from 1st April 2018, it is applicable throughout the country from April 2020 for all vehicles.

Differences in BS- IV and BS- VI standards :  The main difference between BS- IV and BS- VI norms is the amount of Sulphur in the fuel. Reduction in Sulphur will make it possible to equip vehicles with better catalytic converters that capture pollutants.

Similarly, NOx, emission from diesel is   expected to come down by 70% and by 25% in petrol vehicles. Further, the restrictions on PM have been increased in both diesel and petrol vehicles. There are also lower limits for HC and NOx in diesel engines.

Other key changes being board : Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) are being introduced with the roll- out of Bharat Stage VI norms, which were not a part of Bharat Stage IV.

Real Driving Emissions (RDE) will be introduced in India for the first time with the implementation of Bharat Stage VI emission norms. It will measure a vehicle’s emission in real time conditions against laboratory conditions. Onboard diagnostics has been made mandatory for all vehicles. BS VI would require usage of Fuel Injection Technology for two wheelers. This will be the first such norm in India. This will filter out some PMs, some NOx etc.

Advantages : Less pollution, Climate change, Smog, Other health issues, Compliant with global standards. 

Limitations : Increased cost of cars, Around 1 lakh for diesel variant and Rs 25000- 50000 for petrol variant, Upgradation of refineries is expected to cost Rs 20-30000 crore rupees, Fuel is also supposed to be costlier by up to Rs 2 per litre. 

PETROL VS DIESEL COMPARISON

Conversion to CNG : Converting petrol car to CNG only costs around 30000 rupees, whereas in case of diesel car it costs around 150000 rupees, as it requires fundamental changes in the engine of the car and is an expensive Time Consuming process.

Is diesel worse than petrol? 

• More SPMs: A diesel car emits four 22 times more Suspended Particulate Matters (SPM)- the tiny particles which easily penetrate your lungs, hearts and even brains.
• More Nitrogen dioxide: Diesel emits four times more nitrogen dioxide. Less CO2 than petrol and since it is more efficient fuel (it burns more than petrol), it also gives a higher fuel economy.

PARTNERSHIP FOR CLEAN FUELS AND VEHICLES (PCFV)

Why in the News ?  Recently, leaded petrol has been eradicated from the world as Algeria- the last country to use this fuel, exhausted its supplies following the two decades long campaign by the UNEP-led global Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV). 

About Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) initiative:

PCFV is a global public-private initiative launched in 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development by UNEP. 

Aim: to reduce vehicular air pollution through promotion of cleaner fuels and vehicles in developing countries. PCFV worked towards global elimination of leaded petrol (graduated decline of Sulphur as well) by providing support in different areas. (In India, it was phased out in 2000).

About Leaded Petrol: Tetraethyl lead (TEL), or Organic lead, is used as a petrol additive in leaded petrol to improve engine performance. TEL is a colourless liquid whose antiknock properties were first found in 1921. It improves the octane rating of fuel as compared to unleaded petrol. As a result, it became a popular additive in petrol and jet fuels as knocking in the engine causes loss of power with risks of damage to the engine. 

Health Impacts of Leaded Petrol : 

• Tetraethyl lead is toxic in nature, and it is absorbed rapidly by the skin, the lungs, and the gastrointestinal tract. 
• It contaminates the air, dust, soil, water, and crops on release through exhaust fumes, evaporation losses and accidental spills. 
• Exposure to it can cause Heart disease, Cancer, stroke, and lower IQ (especially in children) by impacting brain development.

About Octane Rating: Octane rating, also known as Octane number or Octane Value, is defined as the percentage or volume fraction of isooctane in a mixture of isooctane and normal heptane fuel where knock is initiated at the same compression ratio as in the fuel. It measures the fuel’s ability to resist unwanted sounds due to auto-ignition with higher octane number. E.g :  adding ethanol to petrol helps in reducing knocking as ethanol octane rating is around 109.  For diesel fuel, Cetane number is used to measure the ignition delay property of the fuel, with higher cetane number meaning reduced ignition delay to avoid knocking.

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas is a fossil fuel containing different organic compounds. It primarily consists of methane. Some other compounds in it include ethane, propane etc. It is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas.

How is natural gas formed? It is a fossil fuel which is formed due to extreme pressure and heat for millions of years on remains of plants and animals buried under the surface of the earth.

Advantages of Natural Gas : 

• • Environmentally more clean than other fossil fuels: It releases very less by-products into the atmosphere as pollutants.
  • Economical :  it is cheaper than other fossil fuels.
  • Safer to use: unlike LPG cylinders which has the risk of leakage and accident, natural gas is lighter than air. In case of leak-age it dissipates quickly into air avoiding fire.

• Abundant.

• Easy to deliver- piped transportation makes it easy to transport.

Limitations : 

• • Non-renewable Fossil Fuel- Emits CO2– Global Warming, climate change.

• Easily inflammable

Natural Gas comes in four basic forms :

• Liquified Natural Gas (liquified at – 160 degree Celius). This facilitates transportation in large volumes in cryogenic tankers across seas/ land.
• Regasified LNG (RLNG): LNG regasified at import terminals before transporting it to consumers through pipelines.
• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG): Compressed to a pressure of 200-250 kg/ cm3 – used for fuel transportation.
• Piped Natural Gas: Natural Gas distributed through a pipeline network that has safety valves to maintain the pressure, assure safe, uninterrupted supply to the domestic sector for cooking and heating/cooling applications.

DELHI’S AIR POLLUTION PROBLEM

Introduction

Delhi’s air quality dips drastically every year with the arrival of harvest season during October- November. Though, the government generally blames the stubble burning in the Neighbouring states as the key cause, the air pollution in Delhi is a complex phenomenon that is dependent on a variety of Factors.

Key factors include :

• Input Pollutants : Dust is the biggest cause of pollution during winters. Dry cold weather leads to dust being easily available in the entire region. Vehicular pollution is the second biggest cause of pollution in winters.

According to a study by IIT Kanpur around 20% of PM2.5 in winters comes from vehicular pollution. Around 25% of PM content in Delhi is due to stubble burning.

• Meteorological Factors

Wind Direction: with the departure of Monsoon, the wind direction in Delhi changes from easterlies to westerlies. According to a research paper by National Physical Laboratory – 72% of the winds during winters in Delhi comes from North- West.

North- Westerly winds carrying dust arrive from Rajasthan, and sometimes, from Pakistan and Afghanistan. Dip in temperature brings the inversion height to lower levels. The concentration of pollutants in the air increases when this happens. Low wind speed in winters: High winds speed are effective in dispersing pollutants, but with arrival of winters, the average wind speed decreases.

Note : Inversion Height is the layer beyond which pollutants cannot disperse into the upper layer of the atmosphere.

• Other factors : When compared to other metropolitan (i.e. Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai)- Delhi is surrounded by high density regions on all the sides. The other three cities are located near the coast, thus leaving the breathing space for the cities.

Steps taken in recent years to deal with Pollution in Delhi : 

The Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas :  Formed in Oct through an ordinance to strengthen the air pollution control system in NCR and adjoining regions. Replaces the EPCA. Introduction of BS- VI norms for vehicles

Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) It institutionalised measures to be taken when air quality deteriorates.  The plan is incremental in nature. The natural scope and rigour of measures to be taken is linked to levels of pollution viz. Severe or Emergency, severe, very poor, moderate to poor and moderate.

Push for Electric Vehicles– Delhi’s Electric Vehicle Policy,2019 subsidises buying of electric vehicles and encourages people to move to electrical.

Various steps for controlling Stubble Burning. 

ISSUE OF CROP STUBBLE BURNING

Change in Trajectory of wind on onset of winter : As the monsoon and easterly winds start to withdraw by the end of Sep, winds blowing in from the north- west direction become prevalent again, just like in the summer.

Steps Taken to Deal with stubble burning so far:

• Court Orders : Increased vigil and fines during stubble burning season. ‘In Situ Management of Crop Residue’– this is a central scheme under which state governments are given financial support. Under this 50,000 machines have been distributed in Punjab, with 50% subsidy to individual farmers and 80% subsidy to FPOs.

 

• Awareness generation among farmers : Various projects such as Climate Resilience building among farmers through crop residue management to increase awareness among farmers.
• Clean Air India Initiative launched to curb air pollution in Indian cities by promoting partnership between Indian and Dutch companies. One of its objectives is to halt the hazardous burning of paddy stubble by promoting its use in construction and packaging. Subsidy for technology such as happy seeders to reduce stubble burning.

 

Why hasn’t the stubble burning stopped in spite of orders by NGT and Courts?

Lack of alternative: Though NGT has banned stubble burning and governments have also imposed fine farmers seem to have no alternative. 

• Farmers have very little recourse since the same land has to be re-cultivated within 15-20 days.
• Collecting the straw and using it for economic benefits is a challenge.

• Long period required for composting. 
• Burning the crop residue hardly cost anything.
• Straw management equipment is costly and subsidies are not enough to promote them.

Why has stubble burning emerged as a key problem over the last few decades?

• Increased mechanisation : This allows simple grain removal, leaving the other part of the plant on the field. Stubble burning problem was not as severe when paddy was harvested manually because the farmers used to cut it as close to the ground as possible. 
• Expansion of paddy cultivation in Haryana and Punjab due to better irrigation facilities.

 

PUSA BioDecompose : Developed by ICAR, it is a low-cost microbial bio-enzyme solution which accelerates the decomposition of crop residue, including stubble from paddy crops into manure within 15- 20 days.  It is emerging as a potent solution towards curbing stubble burning. Also, it provides additional manure through decomposed stubble, improving the soil quality as well.

FIRECRACKERS

Firecrackers are among the most poisonous air pollutants. The chemical footprint left by them has a devastating impact on human health and especially affects children. Chemicals such as barium nitrate and cadmium compounds cause respiratory irritation and gastrointestinal problems. Aluminium sulphide is known to cause Alzheimer’s. Lithium and copper compounds cause hormonal imbalance and so on.

In order to tackle the air and noise pollution during the festival season, the Supreme Court in a judgement (Arjun Gopal & others Vs Union of India & others), in Oct 2018 have mandated a series of steps to reduce the pollution from firecrackers. The key highlights of the Supreme Court Judgment includes:

Improving the quality of crackers to reduce Air Pollution.

• Use of reduced emission firecrackers (improved crackers) only.
• Avoiding use of ash as filter material- reduce particulate matter by 15-20%
• Use of reduced emission firecrackers (green crackers)
• To reduce emission of PM, NOx, and SO2 due to in- situ water generation as dust suppressant.
• Fire crackers only with permitted chemicals to be allowed – PESO shall test and check for the presence of banned chemicals like lithium/arsenic/antimony/lead & mercury.

Banning of barium salts in Firecrackers. 

Barium emits poisonous gas causing respiratory problems and may have health complications due to long- term exposure. NOTE: Barium was used as an oxidizer and to emit green light.

It had a low cost and was readily available. Therefore it was used in almost all firecrackers. A ban on it meant a ban on nearly 3/4th of the crackers produced.

Enough facilities should be created to ensure use of quality raw material in gun/ flash powder as per the Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organization (PESO) specifications. This will address the issue of high content of unburnt/ partially combusted material.

Time limit. 

• Firecrackers are only allowed from 8-10pm in Diwali and 11.55pm- 12.30pm in Christmas and New Year. 
• Blanket ban on online sale.
• Ban on series cracker (‘Iaris’)
• Station house officers will be held liable for contempt of court in case of violation of any judgement.

Additional Information PETROLEUM AND EXPLOSIVE SAFETY ORGANISATION (PESO) PESO is an statutory authority entrusted with the responsibility under the Explosives Act, 1884; Petroleum Act, 1934; Inflammable Substances Act 1952, Environment (Protection Act), 1986 and rules made under those acts. It is a subordinate office under the Department of Industrial Policy & promotion. It is the nodal organisation to look after the safety requirements in manufacture, storage, transport and use of explosives and petroleum. The organisation is headed by Chief Controller of Explosives with its headquarter at Nagpur (MHA). Other recent developments :  In May 2018, the Union Cabinet approved the formation of Group ‘A’ service of the technical cadre of PESO in the name of Indian Petroleum & Explosives Safety Services (IPESS). The measure will enhance the capacity and efficiency of the organisation and it will also enhance the career progression of its Group ‘A’ Officer. BARIUM NITRATE It is used to produce green light and can produce more colours in combination with other chemicals. It is used in all light emitting fireworks. Health Hazards: Barium salts, as per the SC, can lead to health complications. A replacement of the salt is yet to be explored.

 

GREEN CRACKERS

Green Crackers are firecrackers produced using less harmful raw materials and additives to reduce emissions. CSIR- NEERI has defined Green Crackers as those which will reduce emission by 30% and can limit sound to 125 decibels. (at a distance of 5 metre) 

Since the Supreme Court had banned barium nitrate, the green chemicals contain Potassium nitrate and zeolite in green crackers instead. Their newly developed crackers also include Safe Water Releaser, Safe Minimal Aluminium Crackers and Safe Thermite Crackers. The packaging of these crackers contains a quick response code and a green logo that states that they have been certified by CSIR and NEERI.

The Supreme Court in Nov 2019 has said that it wants every consignment of the material used in manufacturing green fire crackers to be tested for quality control. Quality control mechanisms should be set up in each manufacturing unit of green fire crackers within 15 days and such units be monitored by officials from the Petroleum and Explosive Safety Organization (PESO).

Are Green Crackers Completely Green? No. They produce 30% less PM2.5 and 50% less SO2 emissions. But they still produce PM2.5 and SO2.

INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES

CLIMATE & CLEAN AIR COALITION (CCAC) : It is a voluntary partnership of governments,intergovernmental organisations, businesses,scientific institutions and civil society organisations. Committed to protecting the climate and improving air quality through actions to reduce Short lived climate pollutants. India became a member of this coalition in 2019.

Currently it is focused on 4 SHORT LIVED CLIMATE POLLUTANTS (SLCPS)

• Black Carbon
• Methane
• Hydrofluorocarbons
• Tropospheric Ozone

WHAT ARE SHORT LIVED CLIMATE POLLUTANTS (SLCPS) : These are powerful climate forcers that remain in the atmosphere for a much shorter period of time than carbon dioxide, yet their potential to warn the atmosphere can be many times. The SLCPs – Black Carbon, Methane, Hydrofluorocarbons, Tropospheric Ozone are responsible for 45% of current global warming.

CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE : It is an initiative launched by the United Nations, WHO,UNEP and Climate and Clean Air Coalition. It calls on national and subnational governments to commit to achieving air quality that is safe for citizens, and to align climate change and air pollution policies by 2030. Initiative will be led by the WHO with the support of the Clean Air and Climate Coalition (CCAC).

Aim : 

• Implement air quality and climate change policies that will achieve the WHO Ambient Air Quality Guideline values.
• Implement e-mobility and sustainable mobility policies and actions to contribute to the reduction of road transport emissions.
• Assess the number of saved lives, health gains in children and other vulnerable groups, and avoided financial costs to health systems from implementing policies.
• Track progress and share experiences and best practices through an international network supported by the BreatheLife campaign.

ALLIANCE FOR CLEAN AIR : This is part of WEF’s shaping the future of cities, Infrastructure and Urban Services, Shaping the Future of Energy and Materials, Shaping the Future of Health and Healthcare, and Shaping the Future of Mobility.

Objectives : 

• Create a shared set of tools and facts for analysing the current situation and prioritising actions.
• Built a cohort of leaders to catalyse corporate and political will.
• Deliver concrete action through multi- stakeholder initiative and increasing the level of funding to air pollution activities globally.
• It aims to harness $20 million in initial funding to provide targeted grants to a range of organisations that are already combating air pollution, improving human health and accelerating decarbonization.

 

THE CONVENTION ON LONG – RANGE TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION (LRTAP CONVENTION) : It is the main international framework for cooperation and measures to limit and gradually reduce and prevent air pollution.

51 countries from the UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) region are parties to the convention, including the EU member states, Canada, the US and Several countries in Central Asia. This was signed in 1979 and the convention has been extended by 8 specific protocols, including the 1999 protocol to stop acidification, eutrophication, and ground level ozone.

THE GOTHENBURG PROTOCOL : The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground Level Ozone was the first agreement to target multiple air pollutants and their sources, including combustion plants, electricity production, agriculture, cars, and lorries.

It also sets emission reduction limits for Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Ammonia (NH3) and Ground level Ozone (O3) precursors nitrogen oxide (NOx) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). 

The protocol was amended in 2012 to include the reduction of PM2.5 addressing air pollution and climate change policies in an integrated manner. The amended protocol entered into force in Oct 2019.

BASEL, ROTTERDAM, AND STOCKHOLM CONVENTION :

OVERVIEW : The Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions are multilateral environmental agreements, which share the common objectives of protecting human health and the environment from hazardous chemicals and wastes.

Basel Convention : 

The Basel Convention of the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was created to protect people and the environment from the negative effects of inappropriate management of hazardous wastes worldwide. It is aimed at reducing movement of hazardous waste between nations, especially from developed to developing countries. It also aims at reducing the toxicity of waste generated and to ensure environmentally sound management. It was adopted in 1989 and came into force in 1992.

It is the most comprehensive global treaty dealing with hazardous waste materials throughout their life cycles, from production and transport to final use and disposal. Note: Radioactive waste is not included under Basel Convention. Note: USA has signed but not ratified BASEL convention.

Rotterdam Convention : 

The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides in international trade provides parties with a first line of defence against hazardous chemicals.

It enables countries to decide if they want to import hazardous chemicals and pesticides listed in the convention.It was adopted in Sep 1988 and entered into force in 2004.

Stockholm Convention : 

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from highly dangerous, long lasting chemicals by restricting and ultimately eliminating their production, use, trade, release and storage. It was adopted in 2001 and came into force in 2004

• Annex A deals with POPs which needs to be eliminated.
• Annex B deals with POPs which needs to be restricted.
• Annex C deals with Unintentionally produced POPs which needs to be reduced or eliminated.

COALITION OF FINANCE MINISTERS FOR CLIMATE ACTION : Finland and Chile created a coalition of finance ministers to agree to a set of principles to systematically study environmental impacts of their portfolios. It will continue to work towards the finalisation and adoption of the Action Plan and the work through the operationalization of the “Helsinki Principles.” It is supported by the World Bank.

COOL COALITION : It is a global effort led by UN Environment, the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, the Kigali Cooling Efficiency Program, and Sustainable Energy for All (SEforALL).

It was launched at the first Global Conference on Synergies between the 2030 Agenda and Paris Agreement in 2019. It is a unified front that links action across the Kigali Amendment, Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals It aims to inspire ambition and accelerate action on the transition to clean and efficient cooling.

THE THREE PERCENT CLUB FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY : 15 countries are signatories, including India. Core partners are the International Energy Agency,Sustainable Energy for All, SEforAll Energy Efficiency Accelerators and Hub, UNEP, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Global Environment Facility, and EE Global Alliance.

The aim is to increase energy efficiency improvements and deliver on average 3% per year until 2030 in alignment with SDG 7.3.

ACTION TOWARDS CLIMATE (‘ACT’) : Committed to accelerate the decarbonization of the transport sector. Its members are national governments (such as Germany, The Netherlands, Costa Rica), and private sector leaders. Implementation of this initiative will be led by UN Habitat.

CHAMPIONS OF EARTH : Highest environmental award by the UNEP. It was awarded jointly to PM Modi and the French president for launching an international solar alliance.

SOUTH ASIAN CLIMATE OUTLOOK FORUM : It was established in 2010, by the South Asian Members of the World Meteorological Organization, as a platform where meteorologists from South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) countries along with Myanmar, could discuss some of the common weather and climate related matters.

Countries under SASCOF — Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Maldives. [NO BANGLADESH] The forecast is helpful for India’s neighbouring nations, which don’t have advanced facilities to issue forecasts and make predictions.

GREEN GOOD DEEDS CAMPAIGN: It was launched by the MOEFCC Ministry to sensitise the people and students, in particular, about climate change and global warming. It is a people-oriented campaign. The plan is to broaden it with the involvement of teachers, students and other voluntary organisations.

SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY FOR ALL : (SUM4ALL) It is a growing global coalition of over 50 leading actors in the transport and mobility space with a shared vision to transform the future of mobility. The World Bank will perform the secretariat functions.