WATER & ITS CONSERVATION

WATER & ITS CONSERVATION

OCEAN POLLUTION

Marine pollution is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.

Plastics Related

1. Plastic Composition: It consists of 80 percent of the debris found in the oceans.
2. Plastic Death: Plastic debris causes the deaths of more than 100,000 marine mammals, as well as more than a million seabirds every year.
3. Quantity: At least 8 million tons of plastic end up in our oceans every year. The amount projected by 2050, on current trends, is about 40 billion tons, which is enough to wrap 6 layers of plastic around the planet.
4. Cost to Economy: Plastic waste causes financial damage of US$13 billion to marine ecosystems each year (UNEP).

Sources of Ocean Pollution

1. Atmospheric/Natural
   • Volcanoes: Volcanic ash contains hydrogen fluoride that reaches oceans through rain and contaminates the lifeforms.
   • Acid Rain: Acid rain can impact the pH of ocean water and lead to acidification and hamper life forms.
   • Eutrophication: When there is an excess of chemical nutrients, mainly nitrates and phosphates in the water, it leads to eutrophication or nutrient pollution.
2. Agriculture
   • Agriculture Runoff: Agricultural use of fertilizers can cause runoff into the ocean of very toxic chemicals and compounds which are detrimental to marine life.
   • Toxins: Such as pesticides, DDT, PCBs, furans, TBT, radioactive waste, phenols, and dioxins get accumulated in the tissue cells of the marine lifeforms.
     • Example: High levels of mercury found in fishing stocks.
3. Industrial
   • Deep Sea Mining: Sulfide deposits created when these substances are drilled can have environmental impacts on marine ecosystems.
   • Waste Water: Sewage and wastewater from industries also pollute oceans and kill marine life.
4. Human Activities
   • Plastic Wastes: Plastics from human use are notorious for choking marine life and causing surface pollution.
   • Oil Spills: Crude oil is difficult to clean up. It’s also toxic, suffocating, and devastating to marine life.
   • Light Pollution: Light disrupts the normal cues associated with circadian rhythms, to which species have evolved timing of migration and reproduction.
   • Noise Pollution: The increased presence of loud or persistent sounds from ships, sonar devices, and oil rigs disrupts natural noises in the marine environment.
   • Acidification: An estimated 30-40% of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans, rivers, and lakes. The oceans across the world are becoming acidic in nature, leading to acidification of oceans.

Impact of Marine Pollution

1. On Marine Ecosystems
   • Coral Reefs: When sediment and other pollutants enter the water, they smother coral reefs, speed the growth of damaging algae, and lower water quality.
   • Bioaccumulation: Toxins can bioaccumulate in the tissues of these animals and cause subsequent genetic changes in them and also enter the food chain.
   • Depletes Oxygen Levels: Most of the debris in the ocean does not decompose and remains in the ocean and uses oxygen as it degrades, causing oxygen levels to go down.
   • Reproductive Issues: Chemicals from pesticides can accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals, leading to failure in their reproductive system.
   • Plastic: Plastic waste frequently ends up being eaten by marine animals, killing them or causing them to trap and suffocate smaller marine life.
   • Dead Zones: A reduced level of oxygen in the water. Less oxygen dissolved in the water is often referred to as a “dead zone” because most marine life either dies.
   • Microplastics: Because of their small size, microplastics (plastic fragments <5mm) can be ingested by a wide range of organisms. This can cause physical damage from abrasions, blockages, or accumulation of toxins in organisms.
   • Species Extinction: Pollution in ocean water can cause species numbers to go down and lead to extinctions.
     • Example: Because of plastic pollution, 700 species could go extinct.
2. On Humans
   • Decline in Fishing Stocks: Ocean pollution leads to reduction in fishing stocks due to the death of species or migration away, causing issues for fishermen.
   • Toxins: Eating seafood that is exposed to bioaccumulating toxins can cause diseases in humans.
     • Example: Exposure to mercury is known to cause such health problems as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease.
   • Decline in Tourism: Ocean pollution causes littering on beaches and destroys coral reefs, which causes a decline in tourist flows to the area.
   • Diseases: Harmful bacteria found in warmer waters and responsible for vibriosis, a potentially fatal illness, are now appearing further north and causing life-threatening infections.
     • Example: Diseases caused by polluted beach water, including: Gastroenteritis, Diarrhea, and Encephalitis.

Issues in Pollution Management in Oceans

• Global Commons: Most oceans fall under international waters and are not the sovereign responsibility of any nation, and thus pollution control becomes neglected.
• Difficulty in Monitoring: Due to the vastness of the oceans, it is very difficult to monitor pollution levels in the oceans.
• Ocean Currents: Ocean currents carry debris thousands of miles, and thus the coverage area is very large to be managed.
• Underwater Pollution: The costs of cleaning the ocean floors are enormous, and there is a lack of cheaper alternatives to ensure removal of waste.
• Multilayered: Many wastes such as microplastics cannot be seen or detected easily and thus cannot be removed.
• Human Behavior

• Waste Disposal: There is a lack of proper wastewater infrastructure to treat waste before entering oceans.
• Global Laws: Global norms like the London framework are not binding and are not implemented seriously.
• Subsidised Agriculture: Agriculture subsidies help farmers use more fertilizers indiscriminately, leading to surface runoffs.
• Oil Spills: Oil spills are very difficult to manage and remove completely.

Multilateral Initiatives:

• MARPOL: MARPOL 73/78 was a treaty written to control vessel pollution, especially regarding oil. In 1983, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships enforced the MARPOL 73/78 treaty internationally.
• UNCLOS: UNCLOS was established to protect the marine environment by governing states to control their pollution to the ocean. It put restrictions on the amount of toxins and pollutants that come from all ships internationally.
• SDG Goals: In 2017, the United Nations adopted a resolution establishing Sustainable Development Goals, including reduced marine pollution as a measured goal under Goal 14.
• Blue Flag Certification: The iconic Blue Flag is one of the world’s most recognized voluntary eco-labels awarded to beaches.
• London Convention: Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter 1972, commonly called the “London Convention,” is an agreement to control pollution of the sea by dumping and to encourage regional agreements supplementary to the Convention.
• Clean Seas Campaign: It aims to ban single-use plastics and microbeads within five years. It will do this by working with Governments to support action.
• India Specific:

• Indo-Norway Marine Initiative: In 2019, the Indian and Norwegian governments agreed to work more closely on oceans by signing a MoU and establishing the India-Norway Ocean Dialogue.
• Plastic Waste Rules 2016: These rules address the disposal of plastic wastes safely and to avoid them ending up in water bodies.

Way Forward:

• Plastic Recycling: Encouraging recycling and reuse of plastic products can help minimize plastic pollution.
• Waste Management: Better waste sorting can curb pollution at its source, especially plastic waste, both on land and at sea.
• Reduce: Choose products with less packaging. Better still, choose shops where you can refill your own container.
• Integrated Fishing: Fishermen and ships should be empowered and incentivized with tasks of collecting debris and waste.
  • Example: In an innovative project, fishermen in Kerala collect ocean plastic for recycling, cleaning the ocean in the process.
• Technology: Artificial intelligence and data science to understand pollution and natural systems.
• Multisectoral Mitigation: Governments, research institutions, and industries should work collaboratively redesigning products, and rethink their usage and disposal.
• Ensure Legal Compliance: Existing international legally binding instruments should be further explored to address plastic pollution.
• Extending Marine Protected Areas: Protected areas can be extended to secure the habitat of critical reefs and marine life.
• Behaviour Change: Reducing consumption of plastics and microplastics can also help slow the flow of plastics to the ocean.

PROTECTION OF OCEAN

Oceans cover 71 percent of the planet and are home to important species and ecosystems that we rely on for food, livelihoods, climate regulation, and more. Oceans need our help as the world’s oceans are under severe threat as a result of human activities, and that the situation is likely to worsen as the world population grows and human activities increase.

Need for Protection:

• Transportation: Over 90% of world trade involves some form of marine transportation.
• The air we breathe: The ocean produces over half of the world’s oxygen and absorbs 50 times more carbon dioxide than our atmosphere.
• Important source of food: The ocean is the number one source of protein for more than a billion people. Fish accounts for about 15.7% of the animal protein consumed globally.
• Employment creation & livelihood opportunity: The blue economy will employ 40 million people across the globe, particularly in developing countries, and contribute several trillion dollars of goods and services to the global economy annually (OECD).
• Countless benefits: Oceans provide countless benefits to our planet and all the creatures that live here.

Challenges:

1. Plastic pollution: “Marine Litter and Plastic Pollution Report of UNEP” has stated that the amount of plastic waste entering the ocean is estimated to triple from 9-14 million tons per year in 2016 to 23-37 million tons per year by 2040.
2. Oil Spill: Oil spill effects on the marine ecosystem are catastrophic. They kill plants and animals, disturb salinity/pH levels, pollute water, etc.
   • Example: In 2020, 1000 tonnes of oil had seeped into the Indian ocean, severely contaminating Mauritius.
3. Water pollution: The increased concentration of chemicals, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, is toxic to wildlife and harmful to humans.
4. Ocean acidification: Climate change has a profound impact on the oceans. Increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere cause changes in the pH of the oceans, which imposes a huge threat to marine life.
5. Coral bleaching: A report published in 2021 by the Global coral reef monitoring network showed that 14% of the world’s coral reef had been lost between 2009-2018 due to coral bleaching.
6. Fertilizer & Pesticides: Fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture end up falling into the ocean. Some of these products cause irreversible and fatal changes to the species. They also affect the reproduction process.
7. Marine Engineering & Oil Drilling: All changes in the marine environment caused by construction, deep hole drilling, and many other human-related interventions impact habitat, various disturbances, and generate pollutants.
8. Rising Sea Temperature: Rising sea temperatures cause dramatic changes in marine ecosystems, with severe and lethal consequences for many species.
   • Example: Raising the water temperature by just 0.5 °C causes the death of coral reefs.
9. Climate Change: Climate change is the greatest threat to ocean health. It is making oceans hotter, promoting acidification, and making it harder to breathe in them by reducing dissolved oxygen levels.
10. Habitat Destruction: Marine forests are destroyed for various reasons such as oil spills, ocean mining, and ocean acidification, which disturbs the marine ecosystem.
11. Over Exploitation of Fishing Resources: Overfishing depletes the population of adult fish and doesn’t leave enough fish to reproduce and replenish their dwindling numbers. This can be attributed to poor fisheries management, unsustainable fishing, economic needs, as well as illegal and unregulated fishing.
12. Unsustainable Aquaculture: Intensive aquaculture at sea promotes the proliferation of pollutants in marine waters.
13. Over Tourism: The direct impacts of over-tourism on the oceans include litter on beaches and garbage disposed into the water. Some developments are destructive to coastal, beach, and mangrove ecosystems, important to sustaining marine life.
14. Ocean Mining: Ocean mining poses serious threats to natural landforms and the wildlife they host, compaction of the sea floor, and creation of sediment plumes that disrupt aquatic life. 
15. Sewage: More than 60% of sewage generated by urban India is untreated and enters water bodies (NGT said).
16. Release of Toxic Chemicals from Industries: Nutrient-packed fertilizers applied to farmland often end up in local streams and are eventually deposited into oceans, which poses serious threats to marine organisms.
17. Food Chain: Small animals ingest the discharged chemicals and are later eaten by large animals, which then affects the whole food chain.
18. Failure in the Reproductive System of Sea Animals: Chemicals from pesticides can accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals, leading to failure in their reproductive system.

Initiatives to Protect Oceans

1. Global
   • London Convention: Its objective is to promote the effective control of all sources of marine pollution and to take all practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea by dumping of wastes and other matter.
   • International Blue Carbon Initiative: Its aim is to mitigate climate change through the conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems.
   • Blue Nature Alliance: It is a global partnership, and its aim is to advance Ocean Conservation Areas.
   • International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI): It aims to preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems around the world.
   • 30X30 Target under UN: Under this mission, the UN aims to protect at least 30% of the planet by 2030.
   • Greenpeace: It is an environmental NGO dedicated to conserving the oceans and marine life across the globe. Its grassroots efforts have resulted in the ban of destructive fishing practices, companies changing their fishing policies, and the creation of whale sanctuaries.
   • Decade of Ocean Science: The United Nations has declared the decade, 2021-2030, as the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, by considering the importance of the oceans on sustainability.
2. India
   • Deep Ocean Mission: It is a mission mode initiative to support the Government of India’s Blue Economy Initiatives. Blue Economy means the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs, and ocean ecosystem health.
   • Ban on Single-Use Plastic: Effective July 1, 2022, the Union government has banned identified single-use plastics (SUPs) as mandated by the Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2021. The stated aim of this ban is to arrest plastic pollution by targeting low-utility, high-littering single-use plastic.
   • Renewable Energy Targets: Reduce India’s emissions by 45 percent by adding 500 Giga Watt of renewable energy, thereby reducing nearly one billion tons of CO2 emissions.
   • Signatory to Global Convention: India is a signatory to MARPOL (International Convention on Prevention of Marine Pollution) which aims at reducing pollution caused by ships.
   • National Fisheries Policy: India has a National Fisheries policy for encouraging the ‘Blue Growth Initiative,’ which focuses on sustainable utilization of fisheries wealth from marine and other aquatic resources.
   • Wildlife Protection Act 1972: It provides legal protection to many marine animals and aims to protect and conserve marine animals.

Way Forward:

• Promote Organic Farming: Organic agriculture contributes to mitigating the greenhouse effect and global warming through its ability to sequester carbon in the soil.
• Alternative to Plastic: We must urge companies to provide consumers with plastic-free alternatives and say no to single-use plastics such as straws, plastic cutlery, coffee cups, water bottles, plastic bags, balloons, plastic-wrapped produce, and take-out food containers.
• Generate Renewable Energy: To reduce our dependence on natural resources, the world must take action to generate renewable energy.
• Reduce Carbon Footprint: Decrease the effects of climate change on the ocean by cutting your carbon footprint at home: turn off lights and unplug electronics when not using them, adjust your thermostat, prefer public transport for traveling, and demand renewable energy options in your community.

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14) calls to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development. The world must take appropriate action to conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources.

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION

Groundwater contamination or pollution is the presence of certain pollutants in groundwater that are in excess of the limits prescribed for drinking water.

Severity of Groundwater Pollution:

• Pollution Levels: 70% of water resources are polluted — as per Composite Water Management Index.
• Arsenic Contamination: Many states like Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar have reported arsenic contamination above the prescribed level.
• Salinity: Most of the Indian states have reported high salinity; also, it has been estimated that approximately 25% of the Indo-Gangetic basin has saline water.
• Uranium Contamination: Over 30 micrograms per liter (mcg/l) of uranium in parts of northwestern, southern, and southeastern India.
• Agriculture Impact: More than 90 percent of groundwater in India is used for irrigated agriculture.

Depletion of Groundwater:

• Punjab is the highest groundwater-exploited state in India, followed by Rajasthan — as per the Central Ground Water Board Report.
• 2016 Parliament Committee Report on Water Resources: Groundwater levels are now described as “critical” in 9 states in central south and west India.

Causes of Groundwater Pollution

1. Natural:
   • Geological formations: Geological formations leach out toxic chemicals from underlying rocks and other lithospheric features.
     • Example: Arsenic found in groundwater in the Gangetic basin is of geologic origin.
   • Anaerobic conditions: Anaerobic conditions in sediments due to organic matter result in the release of arsenic.
   • Water Solubility: Abundance and solubility of fluoride-containing minerals such as fluorite.
   • Decaying Organic Matter: Decaying materials in the soil may seep into underground water and move with it as particles.
2. Agriculture:
   • Fertilizer Use: Chemical fertilizers lead to leaching of nitrate, leading to nitrate contamination.
   • Improper Irrigation Practices: Poorly constructed wells that may lack proper casing and covers may cause groundwater contamination, allowing pollutants to find their way into such wells.
   • Indiscriminate Extraction: Causes inland salinity, oxidation conditions, which lead to uranium enrichment, sea water pollution as seen in Kutch.
   • Skewed Cropping Patterns: This involves growing water-intensive crops in dryland areas like rice and sugarcane, making groundwater exploitation more rampant.
3. Industrial Waste:
   • Industrial Waste: Effluents from industries seep from the soil and pollute the groundwater, releasing heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, zinc, and mercury.
   • Petroleum Storage Tanks: These are either located underground or above ground. The transportation of petroleum products is mainly done underground using pipelines. Leakages from these substances can lead to contamination of water.
   • Sludge Disposal: Hazardous wastes such as motor oil, cooking oil, paint thinners, medicines, and paints should not be disposed of in septic tanks or directly into the environment as they cause serious contamination.
   • Mining: If proper precautions are not taken, chemicals such as arsenic, sulfuric acid, and mercury can spread over a significant area of subsurface water.
4. Municipal Waste:
   • Septic Tanks: Contamination due to septic tanks and poor and faulty sanitation structures.
   • Landfills: Landfills with poor bottom protection lead to the leaching of decomposing chemicals into the groundwater.

Impact of Groundwater Pollution

1. Environment:
   • Water Ecosystems: Abundance of micro and macro nutrition due to contaminated water can affect aquatic life and the longevity of water bodies.
     • Example: Harmful Algal Blooms.
   • Biodiversity: These chemicals impact biodiversity by entering the food chain or destroying plant diversity.
   • Agriculture: Reduced agricultural productivity due to contamination and salinity, as seen in Punjab.
2. Economic:
   • Clean-up Costs: High cost in cleaning up contamination, alternative water supply, and health expenditure to tackle various waterborne diseases.
   • Real Estate Value: The population in the area reduces, and the land value depreciates.
   • Rising Investments: The government has to invest more into water treatment plants and alternative water sources.
3. Health Impact:
   • Disease Burden: Various diseases due to poor quality of water, e.g., arsenic poison can cause cancer, fluorosis due to fluoride contamination.
   • Deformities: Children and pregnant women consuming contaminated water can end up in children growing up with deformities.
     • Example: Blue baby syndrome due to high nitrate exposure.
4. Social:
   • Farmer Loss: It can lead to loss of standing crops and further losses for the farmer.
   • Marginalized: Those with poor access to water and sanitation will be worst hit and increase in poverty rates.

Issues with Management of Groundwater Pollution

• Issues in Monitoring: Absence of real-time monitoring of water pollution by CGWB of water bodies and lack of observation stations and poor monitoring abilities.
• Poor Enforcement of Pollution Control Norms: Because cost of pollution is far less than cost of treatment work.
• Groundwater Use is of Decentralized Nature: Hence, there arises difficulties in checking pollution and over-exploitation.
• Non-Exclusion of Important Parameters: Various parameters that help in detection of pollution by fertilizer, toxic metals, and pesticides are not included in quality analysis.
• Subsidized Agriculture: Agriculture subsidies help farmers exploit more groundwater than sustainable and also the use of fertilizers.
• Policy Focus: Groundwater recharge and pollution abatement lack policy focus, especially due to focus given to agriculture.
• Waste Treatment Infrastructure: Poor waste management in cities is a major cause for failure to manage pollution levels.

Government Initiatives:

• Swachh Bharat Mission: UNICEF study has found that a reduction in groundwater pollution since implementation of SBM.
• Artificial Recharge of Groundwater: The plan aims to raise post-monsoon groundwater levels to three meters below ground level through annual “managed artificial recharge.”
• Water Act, 1974: The act addresses all forms of water pollution and suggests monitoring and preventive measures.
• Regional Initiatives: Initiatives to combat arsenic contamination in West Bengal and salinity ingress prevention scheme in Gujarat.
• National Project on Aquifer Management: NAQUIM was initiated as a part of the Ground Water Management and Regulation Scheme to delineate and characterize the aquifers to develop plans for groundwater management.

Best Practice:

1. Australia: Metered extraction and hefty fines to ensure compliance, and groundwater water balance modeling to guide groundwater allocations.
2. Chennai: Roof top water harvesting is made compulsory for buildings having more than 3 stories, and captured water is used for groundwater recharge.

Way Forward:

• CAG Recommendations on Prevention of Groundwater Pollution:
  • Establish enforceable water quality standards for water bodies.
  • Measures need to be taken to control pollution from sewage and runoff from agriculture entering into water bodies.
• Replenishment: Aquifers replenishment in areas of over-exploitation by providing incentives to individuals to recharge groundwater sources.
• Treatment of Wastewater: It can be a safe source for groundwater recharge.
• Demineralization: Through the use of RO, it can eradicate all hazardous impurities.
• Strict Enforcement: Pollution control laws should be better enforced to avoid future contamination.
• Restrict the Landowner’s Rate of Extraction: Meters can be set up to monitor the amount of water withdrawn under each landholding.

NITI Aayog Recommendations:

• Curb Subsidies: In order to discourage excessive use of groundwater, the electricity and diesel should be supplied at the market rate and should not be subsidized.
• Community Participation: Groundwater recharge projects should be developed and implemented with community participation for augmenting the available supplies.
• Monitoring: There should be a reassessment of groundwater quantity and quality every 5 years.
• Coastal Norms: Over-exploitation of groundwater should be avoided near the coast to prevent the ingress of seawater and also from excessive saline layers of aquifers.

India has been termed as the largest exporter of groundwater in terms of exports. Using groundwater, it is also seen that many areas are overexploited due to skewed cropping patterns and industrial leachate. Policies must target the prevention of such pollution as its impact will be catastrophic for India’s food security as well as public health.

GROUNDWATER DEPLETION

Groundwater is the water present below the earth’s surface and is a vast resource of water. Almost 22 percent of water is below the surface land in the form of groundwater. Groundwater is important as it is used for water supply in rural and urban areas.

Recently, an analysis of water level data done by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) indicates that about 33% of the wells monitored have registered a decline in groundwater levels in the range of 0 — 2 meters.

Reasons for Groundwater Extraction

1. Governance Related Reasons:
   • Green Revolution: The Green Revolution enabled the cropping of water-intensive crops like rice in water deficit regions such as Haryana and Punjab.
     • Example: Groundwater extraction in India is primarily for irrigation in agricultural activities, accounting for 90% of the annual groundwater extraction.
   • Policy Support: This policy-supported intensive agriculture led to unsustainable groundwater use for irrigation and in turn groundwater scarcity.
     • Example: Subsidies on electricity and high Minimum Support Price (MSP) for water-intensive crops.
   • Poor Infrastructure: There are enough groundwater resources supported by higher monsoon rainfall in eastern Indian states like Bihar. But due to the lack of enough irrigation infrastructure, farmers are not able to make use of natural resources there.
   • Inadequate Regulation: Inadequate regulation of groundwater laws encourages the exhaustion of groundwater resources without any penalty.
   • Federal Issue: Water being a state subject, water conservation, harvesting, and making available adequate drinkable water to citizens is primarily the states’ responsibility. However, important measures including funding of various projects are taken by the Central Government.
   • Weak Central Authority: There is currently no central law on groundwater regulation. However, a British-era law called the Indian Easement Act, 1882, gives landowners the right to “collect and dispose” of all water under their land within their own limits.
   • CGWA Inefficiency: The Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) “has become a licensing body for groundwater” that gives no objection certificates to industries to extract groundwater.
   • Issues with Jal Shakti Abhiyan: It lacked scientific planning, community participation, and sustainability of structures, and was marred by corruption.

1. Socio-Economic Reasons:
   • Increased Demand: Increased demand for water for domestic, industrial, and agricultural needs and limited surface water resources lead to the over-exploitation of groundwater resources.
     • Example: Frequent pumping of water from the ground without waiting for its replenishment leads to quick depletion.
   • Industries Requirement: Water contamination as in the case of pollution by landfills, septic tanks, leaky underground gas tanks, and from overuse of fertilizers and pesticides, leading to damage and depletion of groundwater resources.
     • Example: Industrial use accounts for about 5% of the annual groundwater extraction.
   • Increasing Population: With a rapid rise in population and its increasing demand for food, there is an expansion in the area of land under irrigation. This is leading to uncontrolled exploitation of groundwater in India.
     • Example: Recent studies suggest that groundwater levels are declining in several parts of northern India, especially in regions of high population densities.

1. Environmental Reasons:
   • GW Pollution: Post-harvest burning of crops, deforestation, unscientific methods of agriculture, chemical effluents from industries. It also led to the pollution of groundwater, making it unusable.
   • Natural Causes: Include uneven rainfall and climate change that are hindering the process of groundwater recharge.
     • India is mainly dependent on the Indian summer monsoon rainfall and weaker summer monsoons can cause droughts. During such dry periods, water is extracted from the ground to meet various needs.
   • Deforestation: Plants and trees play an important role in maintaining the water table. Reckless cutting of plants and trees is adding to the problem of groundwater depletion.
2. Geographic Reason
   • Geomorphological Issues: Limited storage facilities owing to the hard rock terrain, along with the added disadvantage of lack of rainfall, especially in central Indian states.

Concerns/Impact

• Depleting Water Table: Groundwater depletion may lower the water table, leading to difficulty in extracting groundwater for usage. According to the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), blocks in 256 districts are water-stressed.
  • Example: India’s most water-stressed blocks are situated in Tamil Nadu (541), followed by Rajasthan (218), Uttar Pradesh (139), and Telangana (137).
• Reduction of Ecological Flow: A substantial amount of the water flowing in rivers comes from seepage of groundwater into the streambed. Depletion of groundwater levels may reduce water flow in such streams.
• Land Subsidence: Groundwater often provides support to the soil. When this balance is altered by extracting water, the soil collapses, compacts, and drops, leading to subsidence of land.
• Increased Cost for Water Extraction: As the depleting groundwater levels lower the water table, the user has to delve deeper to extract water. This will increase the cost of water extraction.
• Groundwater Contamination: Groundwater that is deep within the ground often intermingles with saltwater that we shouldn’t drink.
  • Example: As many as 335 districts reported nitrate pollution in 2006, compared to 109 in 2006. A high level of nitrate affects human health.
• Food Insecurity: If groundwater availability faces difficulties, there will be hindrances in agricultural production, leading to a shortage of food.
• Limitations to Biodiversity and Creation of Sinkholes: The water table plays a major role in sustaining biodiversity. Often, sinkholes are created when the water table lowers. These sinkholes are dangerous for buildings and towers.
• Break to Economy: Industries that are dependent on water may feel the break in their working due to water shortage.
• Drinking Water Concern: A significant percentage of extracted groundwater is used for domestic purposes, including drinking water.

Steps Taken by the Central Government:

1. National Water Policy (2012): The policy advocates rainwater harvesting and conservation of water and highlights the need for augmenting the availability of water through direct use of rainfall.
   It also advocates the conservation of rivers, river bodies, and infrastructure, which should be undertaken in a scientifically planned manner through community participation.
2. Jal Shakti Abhiyan: The government launched Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA) in 2019, intended to improve water availability, including groundwater conditions, in the water-stressed blocks of 256 districts in India.
3. Atal Bhujal Yojana: Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY) scheme (co-funded by World Bank) for sustainable management of groundwater with community participation is being implemented in the identified over-exploited and water-stressed areas.
4. Convergent Approach: The Central Government supports construction of water harvesting and conservation works primarily through the MGNREG Scheme and Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana — Watershed Development Component.
5. Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme: The CGWB has taken up the Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme. The program is aimed to delineate aquifer disposition and their characterization for the preparation of aquifer/area-specific groundwater management plans with community participation.
6. Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater – 2020: CGWB, in consultation with the state governments, has prepared the Master Plan – 2020. It envisages the construction of about 1.42 crore rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge structures in the country to harness 185 Billion Cubic Metres (BCM) of water.
7. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): The mission focuses on the development of basic urban infrastructure in the AMRUT cities, such as water supply, sewerage & septage management, stormwater drainage, green spaces & parks, and non-motorized urban transport.

Various State Government Initiatives: 

A number of states have done notable work in the field of water conservation/harvesting for sustainable management of water resources. For example:

• Mukhyamantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan in Rajasthan
• Jalyukt Shibar in Maharashtra
• Sujalam Sufalam Abhiyan in Gujarat
• Mission Kakatiya in Telangana
• Neeru Chettu in Andhra Pradesh
• Jal Jeevan Hariyali in Bihar
• Jal Hi Jeevan in Haryana

Way Forward:

• Estimation of Groundwater Resources: There is a lack of data available for the estimation of groundwater sources, and even if they are available, they are indicative and not representative.
• Local Management of Groundwater: There is a lack of local management of groundwater resources. Local communities have an important role to play in groundwater management, and there is a need for the devolution of power for local management of such resources.
• Micro Irrigation: Micro-irrigation should be encouraged.
• Discouraging Water-Guzzling Crops: Discouraging water-guzzling crops such as sugar canes.
• Assessment of Land Use Pattern: Studies should be carried out to assess land use and the proportion of agricultural land falling under over-exploited units. This will help in determining suitable crop patterns in water-stressed areas.
• Artificial Recharge: As aquifers and other groundwater sources are depleted at a rate greater than the recharge rate, artificial recharge is needed to maintain a lasting water supply to prevent complete withdrawal of groundwater in the near future.
• Integrated Approach: The existing approach of dealing with surface water and groundwater independently has severe limitations. As the Mihir Shah Committee (2016) proposed, the Central Water Commission and the Central Ground Water Board could be united, and a national water framework with an integrated perspective developed.
• Reforms in Power Supply Subsidies for Agriculture: The agricultural power-pricing structure needs to be revamped, as the flat rate of electricity adversely affects the use of groundwater.
• Preventing Groundwater Pollution: Steps to minimize and control the dumping of industrial waste into surface water and underground aquifers should also be taken to prevent groundwater from getting polluted.
• Water to Be Brought Under Concurrent List: If water is brought under the Concurrent List of the Indian Constitution, this can help in the development of a comprehensive action plan. Consensus between the centre and states will result in better conservation, development, and management of water, including groundwater.
• Conservation of Waterbodies: Waterbodies maintain the groundwater level. There is a need to devise special programs for the upkeep, maintenance, and restoration of water bodies with sufficient budgetary allocation.
• Some of the other methods and techniques for groundwater recharge:

• Roof Top Rain Water
• Runoff Harvesting through Recharge Pit
• Recharge Trench, Tubewell
• Recharge Well
• Rain Water Harvesting through Gully Plug, Contour Bund, Gabion Structure, Percolation Tank, Check Dam, Cement Plug, Nala Bund, Recharge Shaft, Dugwell Recharge Ground Water Dams, Subsurface Dyke.

WATER ISSUES AND SCARCITY IN INDIA

Water use has been growing globally at more than twice the rate of population increase in the last century, and an increasing number of regions are reaching the limit at which water services can be sustainably delivered, especially in arid regions. Watershed management planning is a process that results in a plan or a blueprint of how to best protect and improve water quality and other natural resources in a watershed.

Reasons for Scarcity:

1. Weak Monsoons: Poor rainfall leads to the drying up of seasons, rivers, and water bodies, which are utilized for drinking water and agricultural purposes.
   • Data: Previously, average monsoon rainfall spanned 45 days. This number has now decreased to 22 days.
2. Climate Change: Climate change has made weather patterns unpredictable in many areas. Summer extends longer than before, and temperature rise has led to higher evaporation rates.
   • Data: India’s average temperature has risen by around 0.7 degrees Celsius during 1901-2018, as per the Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region.
3. Groundwater Depletion: Exploitative use of groundwater for agriculture and soft drink companies have reduced the water level to below acceptable standards.
   • Data: Ideally, groundwater should be available at a depth of 50 ft to 60 ft, but in Punjab, its level has significantly dropped to 150 ft to 200 ft.
4. Agriculture Use: Irrigation use and use in animal husbandry are often wasteful and exploitative.
   • Data: The total groundwater used for irrigation has risen from 30% in the 1980s to nearly 60% today.
5. Pollution: Water pollution due to improper waste disposal and its flow into water bodies has led to the water quality going below usable standards.
6. Contamination: Groundwater is frequently contaminated through the leaching of toxic chemicals like arsenic or is too saline for human consumption.
7. Poor Water Recharge: Reduction in traditional water recharging areas.
   • Example: Reduction in traditional water bodies that have also acted as groundwater recharging mechanisms.
8. Land Degradation: Land degradation leads to higher soil salinity, which can also impact the salinity of nearby water bodies.
9. Human Wastage: Lack of efficient water management and distribution of water between urban consumers, the agriculture sector, and industry.
10. Poor Water Conservation: There is very poor rainwater infrastructure or saltwater treatment plants, which can make water resources more abundant.
11. Wastewater Treatment: Wastewater treatment is very low in India, and thus the potential for augmenting water resources is lost.
    • Data: Currently, India has the capacity to treat approximately 37% of its wastewater.

Need for Water Conservation and Watershed Management

1. Economic

• Industries: Indian industries, especially manufacturing, cement, and construction, require high water resources for their use.
  • Data: World Bank estimates that the current industrial water use in India is about 13% of the total freshwater withdrawal.
• Hydropower: Water availability also affects hydropower plants, which require constant availability of water to run the turbines.
• Agriculture: Food security through crop harvest and irrigation are vital uses of water, and thus these must be protected.

2. Social:

• WASH: Clean water is an intrinsic part of the WASH – “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene,” which is critical for vulnerable populations and children.
• Drinking Water: The most essential necessity to sustain life and good health.
  • Data: Less than 50% of the population in India has access to safely managed drinking water.
• Household Use: Households require water for various purposes, and without it, there are hygiene issues and outbreaks of diseases.
• Curb Disease: Many diseases are waterborne, like Typhoid and Jaundice, which come from bad water quality.
• Community Empowerment: It aids in empowering local communities and villages in water independence.

3. Environment:

• Climate Change: It is causing drying up of water bodies, changes in river channels, and changing the composition of water.
• Ecosystems: Water helps ecosystems to survive and prevents desertification when in controlled quantities.
• Biodiversity: Animals and plants depend on water too, and thus any change can cause a major impact on their habitats.
• Ecological Balance: It ensures proper water cycles and balance in the ecosystem, which helps in the conservation of biodiversity.

Way Forward

1. Public:

• Public Awareness: Increased awareness by citizens (particularly in urban areas) is crucial. Solving this crisis means that each citizen must be aware of the crisis and take part in proper conservation.
• Community Engagement: Local governments (e.g., gram panchayats) can take part in water conservation by utilizing watershed development and monitoring groundwater usage by farmers.
• Example: Songs like “Ganga Geet” in Uttarakhand, Bhawai dance of Rajasthan.
• Education: Instilling water conservation practices in schools and colleges.
• Example: CBSE mandates that schools become water-efficient.

2. Agriculture:

• Farmer Awareness: It is important to encourage farmers to choose crops wisely and help harvest water by using watersheds.
• Irrigation Practices: Employing techniques like drip irrigation and mulching can reduce irrigation water requirements.
• Reduce Groundwater Use: By harvesting rainwater and storage tanks, groundwater depletion can be reduced.
• Changing Cropping Patterns: Cropping patterns seeking more water in dryland areas must be changed to region-specific and region-friendly cropping.

3. Augmenting Resources:

• Groundwater Recharge: Infiltration basins, or ponds; adding irrigation furrows or sprinkler systems; or simply injecting water directly into the subsurface through injection wells.
• Recycling: Ensuring more waste water treatment plants and taking more measures to recycle water.
• Desalination Plants: Desalination plants can be set up in coastal areas to convert seawater into potable water.
  • Example: In Kuwait, 90% of all water used in the country is derived from desalination.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater harvesting can ensure water independence for households and farmers.
• Urban Lakes: Cleaning urban lakes and diverting sewage flows from them can help augment urban resources.
• Infrastructure Improvements: Wastewater plants, stormwater drains, rainwater collectors are all required for integrated watershed management.

4. Policy:

• Water Tax: Uniform imposition of water tax can make wastage less in urban areas.
• Integrated Water Resource Management: This ensures a multi-stakeholder approach towards water conservation.
• Water Governance:  River boards and dam safety acts can help ensure equitable distribution of resources.
• Inter-State Water Disputes: Resolving river disputes can also ensure proper distribution of river and water resources amongst states.
• Concurrent List: Bringing water into the concurrent list from the state list can help ensure more uniform laws and norms.

5. Government Initiatives:

• National Water Mission: It is one of the eight National Missions under the National Action Plan on Climate Change aimed at conservation of water, minimizing wastage, and ensuring more equitable distribution both across and within states.
• Jal Shakti Abhiyan: It focuses on five aspects: water conservation, rainwater harvesting, renovation of traditional and other water bodies, reuse of water, and recharging structures.
• Atal Bhujal Yojana: Central Sector Scheme of the Ministry of Jal Shakti to improve groundwater management through community participation.
• PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana: A national mission to improve farm productivity and ensure better utilization of the water resources in the country.
• Har Khet ko Pani: To ensure optimum water availability to crops.
• Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme: The main thrust of the program is to increase the area under irrigation, thereby increasing the productivity of the area and improving the socio-economic condition of the people.
• Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: To ensure cleanliness and sanitation by providing proper piped water to all households.

6. Watershed Management Programmes in India:

• National Wastelands Development Board (1985): To accelerate the pace of development of wastelands/degraded lands.
• Watershed Development Component: Under the PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana, it aims to restore the ecological balance by harnessing, conserving, and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover, and water.
• Neeranchal Watershed Program: Neeranchal is a World Bank-assisted National Watershed Management Project. It is designed to further strengthen and provide technical assistance to PMKSY to enhance its delivery capacity.
• Desert Development Programme (1993): The objective of the program is to control desertification and restore ecological balance in desert areas for development.
• Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas (1996): Protect hill slopes of jhum areas through soil and water conservation measures on a watershed basis.

Best Practices:

• Israel: The country recycles 85% of wastewater. It also earns around $2 Billion from exporting its surplus water resources being a desert country.
• UK: United Kingdom is a leader in smart water metering technology, enabling residents to monitor their water usage online. It allows households to get a better hold on their water usage each month.
• Saudi Arabia: It has introduced desalination powered by renewable solar energy — a resource that’s plentiful in this desert nation.
• India: India’s indigenous techniques have proved useful for centuries, like systems found in the state.
  • Example: Baudi, nawn, chhrudu, khatri, khad, nala.
• Namibia: Nearly 30% of Namibian cities’ drinking water comes from wastewater treatment plants.

There is not a global water shortage as such, but individual countries and regions need to urgently tackle the critical problems presented by water stress. Water has to be treated as a scarce resource, with a far stronger focus on managing demand.

INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The National Water Policy (2012) of India, in its institutional arrangement, emphasized that ‘Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) taking river basin/sub-basin as a unit should be the main principle for planning, development, and management of water resources’.

Principles:

• Social Equity: It means ensuring equal access for all users (particularly marginalized and poorer user groups) to an adequate quantity and quality of water necessary to sustain human well-being.
• Economic Efficiency: It means bringing the greatest benefit to the greatest number of users possible with the available financial and water resources.
• Ecological Sustainability: Which requires that aquatic ecosystems are acknowledged as users and that adequate allocation is made to sustain their natural functioning.

How can it be implemented?

• Political Will and Commitment: Political will at all levels can help unite all stakeholders and move the process forward. It is needed when it requires changes in legal and institutional structures.
• Basin Management Plan: Water resources development coordinated among various sectors and thus requires efficient management.
• Participation and Coordination Mechanisms: Initial sharing of general basin-wide data and information, and further sharing of more specific information, will assist the self-sustaining system.
• Water Allocation Plans: As water is a shared resource, water rights should be flexible in terms of allocation in order to accommodate changes.
• Adequate Investment: Coordination for IWRM implementation needs financial sustainability — such as the promotion of cost recovery — and must consider long-term management.
• Good Knowledge: Adequate knowledge and information on the water resources inventory and human resources of the basin is desirable.
• Capacity Development: Capacity development and training priorities should be expressed at all levels, including that of decentralized local government.

Benefits/Importance:

1. Agriculture:
   • Crop Requirements: It ensures that areas under cropping receive adequate irrigation water for an economical harvest.
   • Farmer Welfare: It helps reduce his costs of procuring water through costly methods like installation of pumps and other infrastructure.
   • Drought Resilience: In times of drought or poor rainfall, water use management can help ensure availability for human use as well as for farming.
2. Economic:
   • Pricing Schemes: A well-designed scheme for pricing water resources can promote economic efficiency and create environmental benefits due to decreases in water demand.
   • Economic Good:
     Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and is an economic good, taking into account affordability and equity criteria.
3. Social:
   • Local Knowledge: Incorporating specialized knowledge of the local communities can ensure more collaborative and widespread resource management.
   • Women Empowerment: Women play a central part in the provision, management, and safeguarding of water, and IWRM helps identify their role and contribution
   •  Decentralised: It involves a variety of diversified governance structures at a local, basin, national, and transnational level.
4. Environmental:
   • Water Pollution: It addresses the issues of waste flowing into the rivers and water bodies and suggests ways to improve water quality and flow potential.
   • Fisheries: It helps create sustainable water bodies which can sustain water habitats and boost fishing and ecological welfare.

Challenges:

1. Implementation:
   • Law: There is ineffective legislation and law enforcing water conservation norms in India.
   • Political Will: IWRM requires political will as well as federal cooperation for effective implementation, which may be difficult sometimes in the case of India.
   • Poor Skills: High ratio of unskilled and semi-skilled to professional staff in water management organizations.
   • Populism: Public appeasement through cash incentives and dependency on water resource schemes like Sinchai Yojana.
   • Public Sector Monopoly: In most states, water resource management has the monopoly of government-based bodies and regulations.
   • Poor Infrastructure: Management requires infrastructure like canals, pumps, rainwater collectors, which are missing in many areas.
2. Others:
   • Overpopulation: High population growth can make the demand for water resources higher than what is available.
   • Urbanisation: It involves population growth and rise in construction activities which reduce vital water recharge ecosystems.
   • Pollution: Lack of wastewater treatment can make water bodies unfit for resource management.
   • Poor Awareness: Social and environmental awareness of water management is lacking in various levels of the public.
   • Poor Data: Poor data and information exchange between state and local agencies in India.
   • Subsidies: Subsidies on fertilizer and other agricultural processes usually end up polluting water bodies.

Way Forward:

• River Basin Organisation: These organizations are decentralized and thus help in the management of local basin area water management.
• Cooperative Federalism: Cross-sectoral cooperation between state agencies can benefit all stakeholders.
• Data Gathering: There must be processes to ensure credible data gathering and also evaluating all parameters of existing management practices.
• Skill and Awareness: Water management must be an attitude and thus there is a need for behavioral change before implementing policy frameworks.
• Agro-Climatic Role: Integrating water management systems with an agricultural system using best practices from similar agro-climatic zones.
• Women Empowerment: Women must be declared as the key participants and leaders at the local levels for they have critical understanding regarding resource management.
• Local Communities: All local indigenous communities must participate in the process and share their traditional knowledge.
• Water Laws: There must be a single uniform legislation to ensure uniform best practices all over India.
• Concurrent List: Currently, water is in the state list, making uniform frameworks difficult.

With climate change altering the planet and life, water resources must be protected and efficiently managed for future generations and for the overall sustainability of life.

INTER-LINKING OF RIVERS

The Indian Rivers Inter-link is a proposed large-scale civil engineering project that aims to effectively manage water resources in India by linking Indian rivers by a network of reservoirs and canals to enhance irrigation and groundwater recharge, reduce persistent floods in some parts and water shortages in other parts of India.

National River Linking Project

• Scope: It seeks to link over 37 major rivers in India.
• Components: The Inter-link project has been split into three parts: a northern Himalayan rivers inter-link component, a southern Peninsular component, and starting 2005, an intrastate rivers linking component.
• Management: The project is being managed by India’s National Water Development Agency (NWDA), under its Ministry of Water Resources.
• Irrigation: The irrigation land will also increase by about 15 percent.
• Transport: 15,000 km of river and 10,000 km of navigation will be developed, thereby reducing the transportation cost.
• Tourism: Large-scale afforestation and about 3,000 tourist spots will be built.
• Drinking Water Augmentation: This project will solve the problems of drinking water and financially also will solve the problem.

Need/Importance

1. Economic
   • Agriculture: Interlinking helps drought-prone areas to be irrigated even in the case of poor monsoons or drought.
     • Data: Irrigation land: Land under irrigation will also increase by about 15 percent.
   • Minimises Groundwater Usage: India utilizes the highest amounts of groundwater, thus river interlinking can reduce groundwater requirements.
   • Inland Transport: Many streams and rivers dry during the summer and cannot be used for inland transportation, thus interlinking can ensure river transport.
     • Data: 15,000 km of river and 10,000 km of navigation will be developed, reducing the transportation cost.
   • Allied Activities: Activities like fishing and tourist-based activities are also promoted with rivers.
   • Hydropower: The interlinking projects can also create scope for tapping hydropower and promote the use of renewable energy.
2. Social
   • Employment: The project will generate employment for the people of the region.
   • Farmer Welfare: It reduces the stress on farmers regarding lack of water resources.
     • Data: Ken-Betwa Project: This will result in irrigation of one lakh 27 thousand hectares of land in Bundelkhand, as it is the most drought-affected area.
   • Drinking Water: This project will solve the problems of drinking water and financially also will solve the problem.
3. Environment
   • Water Source: It acts as an additional source of freshwater for wildlife and farm animals.
   • Marine: It helps keep a constant flow of water in river channels, thus helping the aquatic plants and animals to survive even summers.
   • Recharge: Flowing rivers also act as recharges for other water bodies and wetlands like lagoons, ponds, and lakes near the flow of the river.
   • Migratory Birds: Migratory birds sometimes are forced to change routes due to the absence of water and thus it can be beneficial for them.
   • Prevents Floods: Augmenting supplies can ensure that surplus waters from reservoirs can be released.

Challenges/Issues

1. Economic

• Huge Cost: This huge fund will be mobilized through cutting on social sector spending as the government cannot increase taxes and duties that can hamper economic growth.
  • Data: It has been estimated to cost around $168 Billion.
• Delays: The project will take decades and may divert attention from other social infrastructure development.
• Land Acquisition: Land acquisition in multiple states and from thousands of land owners can prove to be a major issue in the project.
• Complex Geography: Water will have to be channeled across different terrains, topographies, and elevations. It involves very complex engineering.

2. Political:

• Centre-State Issues: Centre and state issues will occur in terms of land acquisition, compensation, and benefits from the project.
  • Data: Many states like Kerala, Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh have opposed the process.
• State-State Issues: River water sharing and land-related issues are prone to delays and lack of focus with changes in governments.
• Bilateral Issues: Bangladesh is deeply apprehensive over the diversion of water from the Brahmaputra and Teesta rivers to the Ganga, as this would reduce water flows into its territory.

3. Environmental:

• Land Submergence: It can submerge critical forest areas under water and reduce the size and scope of the protected area.
  • Data: The Ken-Betwa Project will submerge around 10% of Panna Tiger Reserve.
• Effects on Riparian Course: A river has a natural course, and for years it has been following that, but when it is altered, it can affect the river’s course.
  • Example: Ken Betwa Project can impact the Raneh Falls: India’s Mini Grand Canyon-cum-Mini Niagara.
• Desilting: There is a big problem of desilting, and there is no clarity on where the silt can be actually dumped.
• Displacement: It can lead to the displacement of people living in the areas to be flooded.
• Agricultural Land: Many areas will have their agricultural land submerged, leading to a loss of livelihood.

Way Forward:

• Cropping Patterns: Dryland areas must switch to less water-dependent crops and not grow those requiring high water components.
  • Example: Millets can be grown cheaply and economically in dryland areas.
• Irrigation: Irrigation must be sustainable to ensure water availability and reduce chances of water stress.
• Alternative Options: Exhausting other alternatives like watershed development, rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, and optimizing existing infrastructure and cropping methods.
• Case by Case: The project must be taken only in those areas that have exhausted all other options and not for all projects in India.
• Canal Cleaning: Many states in India have canal infrastructure, which if maintained properly, can reduce water stress in the region.
• Water Use Efficiency: Water treatment plants and mandatory water treatment by industries can also help augment water supplies.
• Rainwater Harvesting: Construction of ditches and bandhs can help collect rainwater and further use it in dry periods.
• Solar Power Linkage: Installing solar panels on water bodies and canals has seen dual benefits of renewable power as well as the reduction of evaporation from the bodies.

Examples:

• China:
  South-North Water Transfer Project (SNWTP) to link the Yangtze and its tributaries to solve issues of drought in the region.
• Europe:
  The Canal intends to connect the Danube, Oder, and Elbe rivers and thus provide another navigable link from the Black Sea to the North and Baltic Seas.

The project must not be the first priority, due to its size and impact. We must first explore and exhaust other methods of increasing and augmenting water resources for farm use as well as for other purposes.