During independence Indian subcontinent was fragmented into British India and 562 Princely States. After accession into the Union, there came the sticky issue of integrating the kingdoms and provinces into feasible administrative units.
Historical Background
- Abode of languages: India is a land of many languages, each with its distinct script, grammar, vocabulary and literary tradition.
- For example: As per the 1961 census, there is 1,652 major languages in India.
- British policy: British colonial rule skillfully crafted multilingual administrative territories in India. In pursuit of this policy, H S Risley, the then home secretary, submitted a note to the Crown in December 1903, suggesting the division of Bengal, and then Lord Curzon did divide Bengal, a linguistically homogenous unit.
- Linguistic unity: But this colonial administrative action helped the Bengali speaking people to learn to think in terms of linguistic unity.
- Initial momentum: The movement for reunification of Bengal also gave an impetus to a movement to reorganise the provinces on the basis of language in the eastern region of India.
- First bifurcation before independence: Though colonial administration was forced to undo the bifurcation of Bengal on religious basis, but at the same time it carved out Assam and Bihar as separate provinces in 1911 on a linguistic basis.
- Congress opinion before independence: In 1917, the Congress Party had committed itself to the creation of linguistic provinces in a free India.
- Congress linguistic reorganisation: After Congress’s Nagpur Session in 1920, the principle was extended and formalized with the creation of provincial Congress Committee by linguistic zones. The linguistic reorganization of the Congress was encouraged and supported by Mahatma Gandhi.
- Separation fear: In 1947, People demanded separate states as per the language line, but Indian National Congress hesitated to create a state on the basis of language because of fears of separation.
- Demand of separate states: During that time some Marathi speaking Congress members raised the pitches for separate Maharashtra State. Following this demand, other language speaking people too demand a separate state for them.
Commissions and Committees
- Dhar Commission 1948: Appointed by the Constituent Assembly. It suggested reorganisation based on historical, geographical and administrative convenience rather than linguistic as sole criteria because India faced partition and lost Bengal, Burma etc. in past on linguistic/communal agendas.
- JVP Committee 1949: It dismissed the idea of reorganisation but kept the door open for future re-examination on public demand. They understood that the ad-hoc reorganisation of Princely States with adjoining provinces were not stable and sensible idea.
- Fazl Ali Commission 1953: Officially known as State reorganisation Commission. It accepted language as the basis of reorganisation of States. But it rejected the theory of ‘One-Language-One State’. Its view was that the unity of India should be regarded as the Primary consideration in any redrawing of the country’s political units.
Views on Linguistic Reorganization
- B.R. Ambedkar:
- Supported the formation of linguistic provinces and submitted a memorandum to the Dar Commission advocating the creation of the Marathi-majority Maharashtra state with Bombay as its capital.
- Suggested that the official language of every province should be the same as the official language of the Central Government to address national unity concerns.
- Supported the idea of “One state. One language,” but opposed the idea of “One language. One state.”
- K.M. Munshi:
- Opposed the linguistic reorganization proposal, arguing that the political ambitions of a linguistic group would only be satisfied through exclusion and discrimination against other linguistic groups in the same area.
- Jawaharlal Nehru:
- Recognized the dangers of linguistic chauvinism and communalism early on.
- Despite Congress’ earlier endorsement of the idea of linguistic provinces, Nehru and Patel resisted the idea to prevent division but eventually had to accept linguistic reorganization.
Andhra Incidence
- Hunger Strike: Potti Sriramulu, a popular freedom fighter, undertook a hunger strike in 1952 to demand a separate Andhra state and died after 58 days, sparking widespread agitation.
- Violence and Riots: Following his death, riots and hartals occurred across Andhra.
- Vishal Andhra Movement: The demand for a separate Andhra state intensified, leading Nehru to announce the formation of Andhra Pradesh in December 1952.
- Andhra, the First Linguistic State: In October 1953, Andhra Pradesh became the first state formed based on linguistic lines, separating Telugu-speaking areas from Madras state.
Benefits Served by Linguistic Reorganization
- Nurturing of Regional Culture: Promoted regional languages and culture, strengthening the nation’s overall cultural diversity.
- Better Interaction with Leaders: Helped people interact more effectively with their democratically elected governments without the need for translations or language barriers.
- Consolidation of Federal Structure: Linguistic states made it easier to manage federal governance since people within states spoke the same language.
- Consolidation of Democracy: Improved grassroots democratic participation and government functioning by making communication easier in linguistically homogeneous states.
- Lessening of Discrimination: Reduced the potential for discrimination by aligning state boundaries with linguistic groups, though challenges still remained.
- Avoid fight over territorial regions: Linguistic reorganization provided an objective basis for state boundaries, preventing potential conflicts over regions. This form of federalism, based on language, is seen as beneficial for India’s unity.
- Administrative convenience: Administration became easier since rulers and the ruled would share the same language (lingua franca). States could have their own official languages, leading to more efficient governance.
- Vernacular education: Education could be imparted in the preferred language or mother tongue, enhancing learning outcomes. Literacy increased since students could learn in their native language, boosting cognitive development.
- Diversity of representation: Linguistic reorganization enabled individuals from regional linguistic groups to access political power, moving away from dominance by English-speaking elites or the Hindi-speaking majority from northern India.
- Better interstate communication: The growth of English as a medium of communication for interstate and Centre-state relations was promoted, helping overcome the potential barriers created by linguistic diversity.
Challenges Posed by Linguistic Formation of States
- Identity aspirations: It led to unintended consequences like regionalism and linguistic chauvinism. The “Sons of the soil” concept emerged, favoring major linguistic groups in regions, which resulted in a hostile attitude toward outsiders.
- Division criteria: Linguistic reorganization became a tool for divisive politics, promoting communalism, casteism, and regional or linguistic exclusiveness.
- Lack of equality across regions: Jobs, educational opportunities, and political power distribution have varied across regions, creating rivalries and conflicts based on religion, region, caste, and language.
- Threat to integrity: Demands for new states on the grounds of backwardness (e.g., Marathwada, Saurashtra) and ethnic diversity in the North-East have posed challenges to India’s territorial integrity.
- Suppression of minorities: Linguistic minorities have often been marginalized, particularly those lacking sufficient population numbers to form their own states.
- Affect on national interest: Nation-building has been hindered as regional loyalties have often taken precedence over national unity.
- Rise of regionalism: Linguistic reorganization has strengthened regional political identities, leading to a sense of detachment from the rest of India. Regionalism has undermined Indian unity by creating a separate identity narrative.
- Interstate disputes: Language has been a source of conflict between states, particularly between linguistic minorities and majorities, leading to infighting and undermining national unity.
State Reorganization Act, 1956
- Reform: The State Reorganization Act of 1956 was a major reform that redrew India’s state boundaries along linguistic lines.
- 7th Amendment Act support: This Act coincided with the Constitution’s Seventh Amendment in 1956, restructuring the constitutional framework to provide guidelines for reorganizing India’s states under Articles 3 and 4 of the Constitution.
- Simple Structure:
- The existing distinction among Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D states was abolished, simplifying the classification of regions into “states.”
- New Entities: Union Territories (UTs) were created, replacing classifications like Part C or Part D states.
- Implementation of the SRC recommendations:
- In addition to the three UTs proposed by the States Reorganization Commission (SRC), new UTs like Himachal Pradesh and Tripura were established.
- Fourteen new states were created, including Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Way Forward
- Fundamental Rights for Minorities: The constitution was amended to provide rights to linguistic minorities.
- Example: Article 30 states that minorities (whether based on language or religion) have the right to establish and manage educational institutions of their choice. It also emphasizes that the state cannot discriminate against these institutions based on religion or language when granting aid.
- President Proactiveness: Article 347 allows the President to recognize a minority’s language and officially declare it as an official language within a state.
- Use of Mother Tongue for Education: Since 1956, official policies have promoted the use of mother tongues for primary and secondary education, particularly where there is a sufficient number of students to form a class in that language.
- Commission for Linguistic Minority: The Constitution also provides for the appointment of a Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, tasked with investigating and reporting on the implementation of constitutional safeguards.
- Central Government Role: The central government has played a positive role in defending minority rights. However, implementing these safeguards falls within the domain of state governments, leading to variations in enforcement across states.
Conclusion
While there has been progress in some states, the position of linguistic minorities in most states has been unsatisfactory. The document highlights that while India succeeded in accommodating linguistic diversities (strengthening the national policy framework), other nations (such as the USSR, which failed to integrate Yugoslavia due to linguistic and ethnic diversities) were not as successful.