If we trace the pages of history nowhere men and women were treated alike and assigned the same status. Women have been always fighting for their rights and position in society. Women’s movement is an important variant of social movement that aimed to bring changes in the institutional arrangements, customs and beliefs in the society that subjugated women. The aim of theses movement changed over a period of time and the same is enunciated in context of post-independence women’s movement.
Historical Background (Before Independence)
Problems Faced by Women: Women in pre-independence India suffered from various social evils, such as Purdah, Sati, Female Infanticide, and Child Marriage. These customs and laws, like the Dayabhag and Mitakshara systems, limited women’s rights and perpetuated an exploitative environment.
- Social Reforms Movements for Women Led by Men
- Sati Movement: Raja Ram Mohan Roy described Sati as “murder according to every shastra.” His relentless efforts led to the criminalization of this practice with the Bengal Sati Regulation XVII in 1829.
- Widow Remarriage Movement:
- Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar championed widow remarriage. In 1856, the Widow Remarriage Act was passed to protect the rights of Hindu widows, addressing their social isolation.
- Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded the Widow Remarriage Association in the 1850s.
- Controlling Child Marriage: The Age of Consent Act (1891) forbade the marriage of girls below the age of 12, largely due to the efforts of B.M. Malabari.
- Women’s Education:
- The Bethune School, established by J.E.D. Bethune in 1849, was one of the earliest institutions focused on women’s education.
- Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar is often credited with advancing this cause in Bengal, supporting the establishment of many girls’ schools.
- Indian Women’s University, led by Professor D.K. Karve, was set up in 1916 to promote education among women.
- Several Initiatives Led by Women
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- Sarala Devi Chaudhrani: Founded the first major Indian women’s organization in 1910 in Allahabad. Its goals included abolition of purdah, promotion of women’s education, and improving the overall socio-economic and political status of women in India.
- Arya Mahila Samaj: Established by Pandita Ramabai Saraswati, the Arya Mahila Samaj focused on advancing education for women and improving their status. She actively pleaded with Queen Victoria through the English Education Commission to improve the educational situation for Indian women.
- National Council of Women: Formed in 1925 as a branch of the International Council of Women, the National Council of Women in India played a vital role in women’s movements.
- Mehribai Tata: Played a pivotal role in advancing the cause of women, particularly by highlighting the purdah system, caste differences, and lack of education as key barriers to women’s advancement.
- 5. All India Women’s Conference (AIWC): Founded in 1927 by Margaret Cousins, the AIWC played a significant role in advancing women’s rights in India.
- 6. Women’s Role in National Movements:
- Political Participation of Women:
- Starting from the 1920s, women actively participated in major national struggles, evolving from being seen as supporters to active comrades by the 1930s and 1940s.
- Women engaged in movements from Gandhian to Socialist, Communist to Revolutionary Terrorism, showing their diverse participation.
- In the Tebhaga Peasant Movement (1946-47) in Bengal, women organized themselves on a separate platform, known as “Nari Bahini”, managing shelters and communication lines.
Women’s Constitutional and Legislative Rights
- Preamble: The Preamble of the Indian Constitution guarantees socialist, secular, democratic, and republican ideals for all citizens without gender bias. It assures equality of status and opportunity to all, including women.
- Fundamental Rights:
- Article 14: Guarantees equality before the law for women.
- Article 15 (1): Prohibits discrimination by the state based on religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of them.
- Article 15 (3): Allows the state to make special provisions for women and children.
- Article 16: Ensures equality of opportunity in public employment and appointments.
- Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP):
- Article 39: Directs the state to ensure men and women equally have the right to an adequate livelihood and equal pay for equal work.
- Article 39-A: Ensures justice is promoted based on equal opportunities and legal aid is provided for those unable to access justice due to disabilities or economic reasons.
- Article 42: Makes provisions for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief for women.
- Fundamental Duties:
- Article 51 A(e): Encourages the promotion of harmony and brotherhood, rejecting practices derogatory to women’s dignity.
- Political Rights:
- Article 326: Grants universal adult suffrage to women after independence, ensuring their right to vote (women were previously denied this right during pre-independence).
- Article 243 D: Reserves one-third of seats in Panchayats, including the offices of chairpersons, for women.
- Article 243 T: Reserves one-third of seats in Municipalities for women.
Legislation Safeguarding Women’s Interests
- The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: Provides women with equal rights to divorce and remarry. Prohibits polygamy, polyandry, and child marriage.
- The Hindu Succession Act, 1956: Grants women the right to claim and inherit their parents’ property.
- The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956: Gives a childless woman the right to adopt a child and a divorced woman the right to claim maintenance from her ex-husband.
- Special Marriage Act, 1954: Provides women the right to inter-caste marriages and love marriages, with a minimum age of 18 for girls.
- Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: Prohibits dowry and protects women from exploitation related to dowry demands.
- Commission of Sati Prevention Act, 1986: Criminalizes the act of sati (self-immolation by widows) and punishes anyone who attempts to aid or commit the act.
- Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986: Prohibits the indecent representation of women in advertisements, publications, and media.
- Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Offers protection from physical, emotional, sexual, and economic abuse, and guarantees the woman’s right to remain in her husband’s home.
- Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013: Mandates the creation of a mechanism to redress complaints of sexual harassment in workplaces with more than 10 employees.
Women Movements Post-Independence
- 1950s to 1960s:
- Kasturba Memorial Trust and Bharatiya Grameen Mahila Sangh: Established to assist rural women in developing leadership potential.
- Anti-Liquor Movements:
- Uttarakhand (1963): Led by Vimla and Sunderlal Bahuguna against the liquor license awarded in the Kumaon region.
- Andhra Pradesh: Women in Nellore protested against arrack (alcohol) shops, using sticks and broomsticks to shut them down.
- 1970s:
- Self-Employment Women’s Association (SEWA): Founded in 1972 by Ela Bhatt, SEWA was a trade union for self-employed women. Women shared experiences of low earnings, harassment by contractors and police, and poor working conditions, and SEWA provided them with a platform for self-reliance.
- Anti-Price Rise Movement (1973–1975): Organized by communists and socialist women in urban areas of Maharashtra, with thousands of housewives participating in public rallies. The movement spread to Gujarat and meshed with the Nav Nirman Movement, influenced by Jayaprakash Narayan’s Total Revolution.
- Shah Bano Case: Shah Bano, a 62-year-old Muslim woman divorced by her husband in 1978, sparked a significant movement concerning alimony and the rights of Muslim women in divorce cases, which later culminated in debates over Triple Talaq.
- 1980s Movements: Chipko Movement: One of the earliest environmental movements led by women, where rural women hugged trees to prevent deforestation. This movement highlighted the special nurturing role women have toward nature and the environment.
- 1990s Movements: The focus shifted to dowry, alcoholism, and women’s safety.
- Anti-Dowry Campaign: The Mahila Dakshata Samiti and other organizations, such as Stri Sangharsh, were pivotal in driving campaigns against dowry. This led to a review and amendment of the Dowry Prohibition Act (1961).
- Anti-Sati Campaign: The tragic death of Roop Kanwar in Rajasthan sparked widespread agitation against the practice of sati, culminating in the passage of the Commission of Sati Prevention Act (1986).
- Saheli and Anveshi: Women’s groups such as Saheli in Delhi provided a platform to discuss women’s issues while also celebrating joy, expression through music, dance, and art. Anveshi in Hyderabad became a platform for theoretical studies on women’s issues.
- Anti-Rape Movement: In the late 1990s and 2000s, movements began to focus on rape, crime, and violence against women. Groups in Mumbai and Delhi took center stage, with examples like the Nirbhaya movement pushing the national dialogue on sexual violence.
Outcomes of Women Movements
- National Perspective Plan for Women (1988): The government recognized the momentum of these movements and launched a plan focused on women’s health, education, and political participation.
- Political Participation: In 1993, the Panchayati Raj Bill was passed, mandating that one-third of seats in Panchayats be reserved for women, empowering women at grassroots levels.
- Women-Oriented Schemes: Various schemes were launched to promote the welfare of women and girls, such as Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG), Sabla, and Janani Suraksha Yojana.
Education for Women
- Education: Women’s movements have played a significant role in promoting women’s equality in education and employment.
- Example: As per the National Statistical Office (NSO), the literacy rate of women is 70.3%, whereas the male literacy rate is over 84%.
- Acknowledgment of Women’s Rights: Society has recognized that women are entitled to the same rights and opportunities as men.
- Freedom to Take Decisions: Women now have greater autonomy in making significant life decisions, such as marriage and family planning.
- Reduction in Female Infanticide and Child Marriage: There has been a significant decline in female infanticide and child marriage, reflecting increased recognition of the importance of women.
Problems of Indian Women in the 21st Century
- Female Infanticide: Though reduced, it still persists in urban and educated sections due to male child preference, particularly through sex selection.
- Declining Child Sex Ratio: As per the 2011 Census, the child sex ratio (0–6 years) showed a decline from 927 females per 1,000 males in 2001 to 919 females per 1,000 males in 2011.
- Low Sex Ratio: The overall sex ratio remains 940 females per 1,000 males, which shows improvement but is still far from ideal gender equality.
- Child Abuse: Female children face significant abuse, physically and emotionally, especially within families, leading to mental trauma.
- Inferior Treatment: Women face neglect throughout their lives, from education to healthcare, and are often employed as child laborers. Their emotional well-being is also overlooked.
- Problem of Dowry: Dowry remains a major societal issue, causing emotional tensions and affecting marriages, leading to delays or avoidance of marriage altogether.
- Domestic Violence: Despite progress, domestic violence persists, particularly for reasons related to dowry, love marriage, or inter-caste marriage.
- Workplace Harassment: As more women engage in jobs, they face harassment at the workplace, often left without adequate means to report such issues due to economic constraints.
- Safety: Women’s safety in public spaces remains a concern, with issues like molestation, rape, and eve-teasing common. India’s global image has also suffered due to these recurring safety concerns.
- Trafficking: The trafficking of women and children, especially girls, continues to rise. Organized crime syndicates with strong networks are involved, with trafficked women used for forced labor, prostitution, and criminal activities.
- Low Literacy: Despite decades of independence, the literacy rate for women is 65% compared to 82% for men, highlighting the persisting gap in women’s education.
- Non-valuing Housewife Job: Women’s contributions to household work, despite long hours, remain unrecognized both socially and economically. These efforts are neither publicly valued nor financially rewarded.
- Feminization of Agriculture: As men migrate for work, women are left to manage agricultural duties, which reinforces their economic vulnerability and keeps them trapped in a cycle of poverty.
- Less Economic Engagement: While women participate in various economic sectors, their labor force participation is still lower than men. For example, between 2004 and 2011, female participation in the labor force dropped from 35% to 25%.
- Lack of Political Participation: Although India’s constitution is gender-neutral, women’s political participation remains limited. In the 16th Lok Sabha, women MPs accounted for just 11%. Moreover, women in Panchayats often occupy positions through familial political influence, rather than independent merit.
Women’s Achievements Post-Independence
- Economic Achievements: Women have made significant inroads in the economic sphere, challenging traditional roles and participating alongside men in various industries. Indian women have made strides in high-tech service sectors like IT, medicine, and biotechnology. Examples include:
- Chanda Kochhar (ICICI Bank)
- Kiran Mazumdar Shaw (Biocon Biotechnology)
- Indira Nooyi (PepsiCo)
- Arundhati Bhattacharya (SBI)
- Political Participation: Women like Indira Gandhi, the first female Prime Minister of India, demonstrated India’s global political power. She paved the way for future female political leaders like Mayawati, Mamata Banerjee, and Jayalalithaa.
- Social Progress: The situation of widows has seen improvement with greater acceptance of widow remarriage. Additionally, women are increasingly asserting their rights in divorce and second marriages, making significant progress in education and careers.
- Example: Women leaders like Kiran Bedi (India’s first woman IPS officer) and Nirupama Rao (IFS officer).
- Scientific Achievements: Women have proven their excellence in the fields of Science and Technology (S&T), disproving medieval perceptions of women’s intellectual inferiority.
- Notable figures include:
- Anna Mani (Meteorology)
- Dr. Indira Hinduja (Gynecology)
- Dr. Aditi Pant (Oceanography)
- Sunita Narain (Environment)
- Dr. Tessy Thomas (The Missile Woman of India, known for her role in the Agni missile series).
- Notable figures include:
Way Forward
- Increasing Political Participation: The government should pass a bill to ensure greater participation of women in politics. Increased representation in legislative bodies is crucial for addressing women’s issues at the policy-making level.
- Women Health-Oriented Programmes: Although there are multiple programs aimed at improving women’s health, the issue lies in the implementation of these programs. The government needs to ensure proper execution and monitoring to enhance the healthcare outcomes for women.
- Encouraging Higher Education for Women: The government should encourage women’s participation in higher education, enabling them to contribute more significantly to society. This would also empower women economically and socially.
- Programme for Better Sex Ratio: The government must continue or expand campaigns like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao to address the declining sex ratio by raising awareness and promoting gender equality.
- Reservation in Jobs: The government should consider job reservation for women, similar to the SC/ST reservation policy, to boost their economic participation and representation in various sectors.
Conclusion
The overall analysis suggests that women’s movements have been successful in bringing issues related to women’s rights and justice into the public discourse. However, these efforts are just the beginning, and there remains a long struggle ahead for achieving complete equality, justice, and dignity for all women.