HISTORY OF THE PARMAR DYNASTY

Origin of the Parmar Dynasty

The origin of the Parmar dynasty is deeply rooted in mythology and folklore. According to inscriptions and ancient literary sources like the Navasahasankacharit, composed by the poet Pahmagupta (also known as Parimal), the Parmar dynasty’s origin is tied to a divine event. Sage Vasishtha, who resided on Mount Abu, faced a predicament when the sage Vishwamitra deceitfully took away his sacred cow, Nandini. In response, Vasishtha recited powerful mantras and performed a sacrificial ritual in his sacred fire. From this fire, a brave warrior emerged, who fought valiantly against the enemies and reclaimed the cow. Impressed by his valor, Vasishtha named him “Parmar,” which means “one who kills the enemy.” This narrative forms a significant part of the Parmar dynasty’s origin story.

Branches of the Parmar Dynasty

The Parmar dynasty, over time, established various branches across different regions. These branches included:

1. Abu
2. Malwa
3. Vagad
4. Jalore
5. Kiradu

Each of these branches played a distinct role in the history and governance of their respective regions.

Parmars of Abu

The branch of the Parmar dynasty that ruled over Abu has a notable history. While Dhumraj is considered the earliest figure associated with this branch, the recognized founder of this lineage is Utpalraj. Key figures of this lineage include:

• Dharanivarah: During the invasion of the Chalukya king Moolraj I, Dharanivarah sought refuge under Rathore king Dhawal. This event is documented in the hasthikundi inscription of Dhawal dating back to 997 AD. Dharanivarah is a well-known figure in Rajasthan’s history, primarily because he divided his kingdom among his nine brothers, leading to the creation of nine capitals, collectively known as “Navkoti Marwar.”
• Dhanduk: Dhanduk faced challenges during the invasion by Chalukya king Bhimdev I. To escape the invasion, he fled to Chittor near Bhoja Parmar. Bhimdev I subsequently appointed Vimalshah as the Dandapati (administrator) of Abu. Vimalshah mediated a settlement between Dhanduk and Bhimdev. In 1031 AD, Vimalshah constructed the Adinath Jain temple in Abu, famously known as Vimalavasahi. Additionally, Dhanduk’s widowed daughter, Lahini, contributed to the region’s architectural heritage by renovating the Sun Temple and Saraswati Bavdi in Basantgarh. This Bawdi (stepwell) is now known as Lahini Bawdi.

The Parmars of Abu held the title of Mahamandleshwar, which indicated their stature and authority in the region.

Prominent Rulers of the Parmar Dynasty of Abu

• Vikramdev: He played an essential role in a struggle between Kumarapal Chalukya and Arnoraja Chauhan. This incident is mentioned in Hemachandra’s Dvyashrayamahakavya and Jinmandanupadhyay’s Kumarapal Prabandha.
• Dharavarsh: Dharavarsh was a key figure in the 12th-century military struggles. In 1178 AD, during the invasion of Gujarat by Mohammed Gauri, the guardian of Chalukya king Moolraj II, Devi, defeated Gauri in the battle of Kayadra. Dharavarsh, along with Kelhan (from Nadoul) and Kirtipal Sonagara, supported Gujarat during this conflict. Later, in 1206 AD, when Qutbuddin Aibak attacked Gujarat, Dharavarsh served as one of the two principal generals of the Chalukyas, leading the defense against Aibak’s forces. Though Aibak emerged victorious in this conflict, Dharavarsh’s contributions were notable.

Additionally, during invasions by Iltutmish and the Yadav king of the South, Dharavarsh supported Gujarat under the direction of Baghel ruler Virdhaval of Dholka, alongside his ministers Vastupal and Tejpal. Renowned for his archery skills, it is said that Dharavarsh could shoot three buffaloes with a single arrow, as recorded in the Patnarayan temple inscription of 1287 AD. This feat is immortalized in a statue near the Achleshwar temple, where three buffaloes are depicted standing before the figure of an archer, Dharavarsh. He had two queens, Shringar Devi and Giga Devi, both daughters of the Chauhan king of Nadol, Kelhan. Giga Devi was his patrani (chief queen).

Dharavarsh’s younger brother, Prahladan Dev, was also a significant figure, known for his valor and scholarship. References to him can be found in Someshwara’s Kirti Kaumudi and the inscription at the Lunavasahi temple. Prahladan Dev repelled an invasion of Abu by Prithviraj Chauhan, establishing the city of Prahladanpur and composing the drama Parthparakramnavayoga.

• Som Singh: A key figure of this era, Tejpal, constructed the Neminath Jain Temple in Abu in honor of Som Singh’s son Luna Singh and his wife Anupama Devi. This temple is known as Lunavasahi and is a testament to the region’s architectural excellence.
• Pratap Singh: He is noted for defeating Jaitrasingh of Mewar and capturing Chandravati. During his reign, his Brahmin minister, Delhan, undertook the renovation of the Patnarayan temple, adding to the cultural heritage of the region.
• Vikram Singh: During his rule, the Paramaras of Abu began adopting titles such as Raja Rawal and Maharawal, indicating a shift in their status and claims of authority. However, the Chauhans of Jalore emerged as a challenge to the western territories of the Parmar kingdom. Eventually, Lumba Deora, a Chauhan leader, took control of Abu and Chandravati, establishing Chauhan rule over the region.

BAUK INSCRIPTION (837 AD)

The Bauk Inscription, dating back to 837 A.D., holds significant historical value and provides crucial information about the Pratihara dynasty. Initially, this inscription was installed in a Vishnu temple located in Mandore, a town of great historical importance in Rajasthan. Over time, this inscription was moved to the ramparts of Jodhpur city, where it remains an important artifact.

• Significance: The Bauk Inscription serves as a vital source for understanding the lineage and rule of the Pratiharas, one of the prominent Rajput dynasties of India. The inscription’s details contribute to the reconstruction of the Pratihara dynasty’s history and their influence in the region.
• Content: Carved under the reign of the Pratihara King Bauk, this inscription provides insights into the religious practices of the time, specifically highlighting the worship of Hindu deities Vishnu and Shiva. The dual emphasis on Vishnu and Shiva worship suggests a syncretic religious culture under the Pratihara rule, indicating their patronage of various sects and the promotion of temple-building activities. This also reflects the cultural and religious priorities during King Bauk’s rule.

GHATIALA INSCRIPTION (861 AD)

The Ghatiala Inscription, established in 861 A.D., is another valuable historical record of the Pratihara dynasty. Commissioned by King Kukkuk of the Pratihara lineage, this set of inscriptions offers detailed accounts of the Pratihara rulers and their reigns. The inscriptions are significant for their linguistic diversity and historical content.

• Location and Language: These inscriptions are associated with an ancient Jain temple known as “Mata ki Saal” in the Ghatiala area. The set includes one inscription in Prakrit, engraved within the Jain temple, and four others in Sanskrit, placed at a nearby location called Khaku Deval. The linguistic diversity, with inscriptions in both Prakrit and Sanskrit, indicates the Pratiharas’ respect for the cultural and scholarly traditions of their time.
• Translation and Content: Among the inscriptions, the first of the four Sanskrit inscriptions is a direct translation of the Prakrit one, illustrating an effort to make the records accessible to scholars and patrons of both languages. The inscriptions outline the genealogy of the Pratihara rulers, tracing their lineage from King Harishchandra to King Kukkuk, providing a valuable genealogical record.
• Religious and Cultural Aspects: Two of the inscriptions begin with invocations to Hindu deities—Vinayak (another name for Ganesha) and Siddham (a term associated with spiritual success and learning). These invocations suggest that the Pratihara rulers sought divine blessings and aimed to align their rule with religious practices. The inscriptions also emphasize King Kukkuk’s influence and popularity across various regions such as Gujarat, Valla, Maad, Sheo, Malani, Pachbhadra, Triveni, and Ajja.
• Jai Stambh (Victory Pillars): King Kukkuk is credited with establishing two victory pillars (Jai Stambh) at Ghatiala and Mandore. These pillars symbolized the military prowess and victories of the Pratihara rulers, serving as monuments to commemorate their dominance and authority in the region.
• Administrative Achievements: The inscriptions also highlight King Kukkuk’s administrative abilities, particularly his success in quelling disturbances caused by the Abhirs in the region of Ghatiyala, historically referred to as Rohinskup. Following this victory, Kukkuk transformed Ghatiyala into a prosperous trading center, making it habitable for various social groups, including Brahmins, Mahajans (merchants), and Kshatriyas (warriors). This act reflects the Pratihara rulers’ role in fostering economic growth and stability in their territories.
• Authors and Engravers: The author of the inscriptions was Matraravi, a Magh Brahmin, while the engraver was a skilled goldsmith named Krishneshwar. Their contributions highlight the collaborative efforts between scholars and artisans in recording and preserving historical events. Notably, King Kukkuk himself is mentioned as the writer of the first Sanskrit inscription, and he also composed the final verse of the Prakrit inscription, indicating his direct involvement in documenting his legacy.

PRATIHARAS OF MANDORE

Origin and Early Rulers

The Pratiharas of Mandore were a significant Rajput clan in Rajasthan, known for their valor, scholarly pursuits, and political influence. Their history is intertwined with the region’s religious and cultural development, as well as its strategic battles. Some of the notable rulers and their contributions are as follows:

• Harishchandra: He is regarded as a key figure in the history of the Pratiharas of Mandore, carrying the title Proficient in Yoga, which reflects his spiritual inclination and expertise in ascetic practices. Harishchandra was a scholar of the Vedas, showcasing the dynasty’s deep connection to Brahmanical traditions. He had two queens—a Brahmin queen and a Kshatriya queen—who gave birth to Brahmin Pratiharas and Kshatriya Pratiharas respectively. Some of his notable descendants include Bhogabhatta, Kakka, Razzil, and Dadd. Harishchandra is credited with capturing the fort of Mandore through his military strength and constructing its fortifications, marking the beginning of the Pratiharas’ dominance in the region.
• Razzil: With Razzil, the formal lineage of the Pratiharas of Mandore begins. His leadership further solidified the Pratihara presence in Mandore, laying the foundation for future generations to build upon.
• Narbhatta: Known for his bravery, Narbhatta earned the title Pellapelli, a term that signifies his combat prowess. His reputation as a formidable warrior contributed to the strengthening of the Pratihara rule in Mandore.
• Nagabhatta (also known as Nahar): Nagabhatta is another prominent ruler in the lineage. He shifted the capital to Merta, a significant town in present-day Rajasthan. His son, Taat, eventually retired to a holy ashram in Mandore, handing over the responsibilities of the kingdom to his younger brother, Bhoj. This transition reflects the importance placed on spiritual life and governance in the Pratihara tradition.

Expansion and Consolidation of Power

• Shiluk: A powerful ruler, Shiluk expanded the Pratihara kingdom by conquering the regions of Travani and Valla. He also managed to wrest the Chhatra (royal umbrella, a symbol of sovereignty) from Bhatti Devaraja, the ruler of Valla Mandal. These conquests not only increased the territorial reach of the Pratiharas but also enhanced their political clout in Rajasthan.
• Kakk: Kakk served as a vassal to the Raghuvanshi Pratihara king Vatsaraja, actively participating in the battle of Munger against the regional power of Dharmpal. His contribution in this battle underscores the alliance between different Rajput dynasties during this period. Kakk was well-versed in multiple disciplines, including grammar, astrology, logic, and poetry, reflecting the intellectual culture that flourished under his leadership. He had two sons, Bauk and Kakkuk, born to his queens Bhati Rani Padmini and Durlabhdevi, respectively.

Notable Rulers: Bauk and Kakkuk

• Bauk: Known for his military achievements, Bauk defeated a rival king named Mayur in the Battle of Bhuakup. This victory solidified his position in the region and demonstrated the military strength of the Pratihara rulers of Mandore. To commemorate his achievements, he established an inscription in Mandore, celebrating his conquests.
• Kakkuk: As a prominent Pratihara ruler, Kakkuk is particularly well-documented in the Ghatiala inscriptions. These inscriptions highlight his popularity among the people of various regions, including Maru, Maad, Tamani, Aja, and Gurjajaratra. Kakkuk’s leadership was marked by his efforts to bring stability to the region. He addressed disturbances caused by the Bheels in the Wadnalaya Mandal by decisively burning their paals (fortifications). Additionally, Kakkuk developed the economic infrastructure of the area by establishing a market in a village near Rohniskoop, encouraging the settlement of Mahajans (merchants) and promoting trade. He also erected the Jayastambha (victory pillars) at Rohinskoop and Mandore to commemorate his military achievements. An accomplished poet, Kakkuk contributed to Sanskrit literature, illustrating the cultural patronage of the Pratiharas.

Later Inscriptions and Decline

• Cherai Inscription (936 A.D.): This inscription is an important source of historical information, providing details about Jaskaran, the son of Pratihara Durlabhraj. It contributes to the understanding of the succession and lineage of the Pratihara rulers, shedding light on their governance and family dynamics.
• Inscription of Sahajpal (1139 A.D.): The decline of the Pratiharas in Mandore began during this period. The Chauhan ruler Raipal of Nadoul captured Mandore, displacing the Pratiharas from their stronghold. The inscription of his son, Sahajpal, found in Mandore, marks this transition of power. It signifies the shift in regional dominance from the Pratiharas to the Chauhans, a key event in the history of Mandore.
• Transition to the Rathores: In the later years, the Pratihara rulers of Mandore faced internal strife, particularly under the reign of their king, Hamir Pratihara. Troubled by the declining power of their dynasty, the Inda Pratiharas decided to give Mandore as a dowry to Rao Chunda Rathore of Marwar. This transfer of control marked the end of Pratihara rule in Mandore and the beginning of the Rathore influence in the region. Rao Chunda’s acquisition of Mandore laid the groundwork for the rise of the Rathores in the Marwar region, which eventually became a major power in Rajasthan.